Transitive Geostatistics for Stepwise Modeling Across Boundaries between Rock Regions

A single intrinsic stationary random field may not account for transitional heterogeneity and abrupt dissimilarity of geological properties across boundaries between rock type regions. This paper proposes the stepwise construction of transitive covariance models for modeling continuous properties correlated across boundaries of multiple disjoint physical domains such as rock type bodies. Modeling in geology is usually simplified by splitting the geological space into rock type geo-domains (e.g., strata, sedimentary facies, soil series, diagenetic regions and alteration zones). Due to the limitations of simultaneous solutions, a simplification is to model each domain independently at the cost of losing the conditioning of properties across domains. This paper proposes to organize the modeling process in a triangular array which follows events in the geological time domain; for example, the younger formations are at the top of the pyramid and the older formation at the base. The estimation may go from top to base by assuming that younger events have perturbed older formations. Geology shows the scars of events that cumulate in rock formations before they are finally eroded. In some cases, older formations may be parent material for younger formations. The continuous property within each geo-domain has a conditional covariance in the main diagonal of the array which may belong to a specific event in the geological time. This sequence leads to transitive estimation and simulations in the physical space. If a simultaneous solution is sought (i.e., the future and past are correlated both ways), the complex covariance functions can be constructed stepwise from conditional spectra.     

Diagenesis and reservoir properties of Middle Jurassic sandstones,Traill Ø, East Greenland: The influence of magmatism and faulting

The c. 500 m thick Middle Jurassic sandstones of the fluvial Bristol Elv and marine Pelion Formations of the East Greenland Basin are evaluated here in order to improve the understanding of the processes that influenced the diagenetic evolution. The study may help to predict the reservoir properties of sandstones affected by magmatism and faulting, both in general and specifically in undrilled areas on- and offshore East Greenland and, in the Vøring Basin on the Mid-Norwegian shelf. The study shows a variety of authigenic mineral phases dominated by quartz cement, carbonate cement, illite and iron-oxide. One of the clear differences between the two formations is the presence of early carbonate-cemented horizons in the marine sandstones; these horizons are inferred to reflect a primary concentration of biogenic clasts and fossil shells. Intense quartz cementation occurs primarily in the fluvial sandstones but the marine sandstones are also highly quartz-cemented. Two episodes of burial and uplift are recorded in the diagenetic sequence and widespread grain-crushing in coarse-grained intervals is believed to result from overpressure and subsequent compaction due to sudden pressure release along major faults. Maximum burial depths may only have been around 2000–2500 m. Cathodoluminescence analyses show that grain crushing was followed by intense quartz cementation. The quartz cement is to a great deal believed to have formed due to increased surface area from crushing of detrital quartz grains, creating fresh nucleation sites for the quartz. Cathodoluminescence investigations also show that only minor pressure dissolution has taken place between detrital quartz grains and that the ubiquitous quartz cementation displays several growth zones, and was thus in part the result of the introduction of silica-rich extra-formational fluids related to the flow of hot fluids along reactivated faults and increased heat flow and temperature due to magmatism. This interpretation is supported by fluid inclusion homogenization temperatures between 117 and 158 °C in quartz cements. In one of the two study areas, the development of macroscopic stylolites has significantly enhanced quartz cementation, probably in connection with thermal convection flow. As a result of the magmatic and fault-related quartz cementation and illitization, the reservoir quality of the sandstone formations deteriorated and changed drastically.     

控制碳酸盐岩油藏单井产能的主要地质因素分析——以哈萨克斯坦北特鲁瓦油田KT-I油层组为例

目前国内外针对控制碳酸盐岩油藏单井产能主要地质因素研究还较少。本文以哈萨克斯坦北特鲁瓦油田KT-I油层组为例,基于岩芯分析、测井解释成果、储层微观表征与生产动态分析等资料,宏观上从沉积作用、成岩作用、构造作用以及微观上从储层岩性、储层类型、物性、有效厚度等两方面对单井产能主控因素进行了研究。研究发现单井产能主要受孔隙体积、渗透率与储层有效厚度的直接影响,而孔隙体积及孔隙空间类型受岩性、沉积微相与成岩相控制。在碳酸盐岩中,裂缝的发育可极大程度地改善孔隙连通性,从而增加渗透率,而其发育受断裂作用与构造变形及成岩作用、岩性控制。研究各种地质因素对碳酸盐岩单井产能的控制作用,可为制定初次油气开发方案提供有效的指导,为调整开发方案和老区扩边勘探、滚动开发提供更为可靠的依据。     

鄂尔多斯盆地榆林气田山西组2段砂岩成岩作用及孔隙演化

榆林气田下二叠统山西组2段为一套辫状河三角洲沉积,储集岩主要为石英砂岩、岩屑石英砂岩,平均孔隙度5.36%,平均渗透率4.58×10-3μm2,是典型的低孔低渗储层。以岩心观察为基础,结合薄片鉴定、扫描电镜、阴极发光及物性分析等资料进行研究,认为山2段砂岩经历了压实作用、胶结作用、交代作用、溶解作用、粘土杂基的充填作用等多种成岩作用,目前已达到晚成岩阶段A期。成岩作用是控制该区储层物性的关键因素,孔隙演化经历了原生孔隙的破坏、次生孔隙的形成和次生孔隙的破坏三个阶段。各类次生孔隙占总孔隙度的55.3%,其中岩屑溶孔18.4%,粒间溶孔10.8%,晶间孔26.1%。     

靖边气田北部中奥陶统马家沟组五_4~1储层沉积微相组合与储层非均质性控制因素

中奥陶统马家沟组上部马五41储层是鄂尔多斯盆地靖边气田主力产气段,根据该层段的岩石学特征和沉积构造等,可划分为3个亚相以及9个微相组合。该储层的储集性能具有强烈的非均质性,微观上表现为低孔低渗,以微细喉、细喉为主;纵向上表现为反韵律、随机韵律、均质韵律3种韵律模式,平面上表现为平均岩心孔隙度、渗透率分布的非均一性。沉积微相及微相组合差异性是控制岩石孔隙发育的基础,成岩作用决定了孔隙发育的程度,古岩溶地貌类型对储层分布有着明显制约作用,最终导致该区储集性能在纵横向上的非均质性。     

Geochemical gradients and artifact mass densities on the lowermost Bed II eastern lake margin (~ 1.8 Ma), Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania

Bulk geochemistry of ~ 1.8 Ma lacustrine claystone at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, is controlled principally by the geochemistry of ultrafine (< 0.1 μm), authigenic clay minerals. Authigenic clays have an average structural formula of (Si_3.83Al_0.17)(Al_0.43Fe_0.49Mg_0.84)(Na_0.99K_0.22Ca_0.16)O₁₀(OH)₂; octahedral composition varies, with Mg/(Al + Fe) ranging from 0.7 to 2.3. These clay minerals have a complex history of interaction with saline, alkaline water, followed by secondary diagenetic reactions that leached Mg in freshwater paleoenvironments. Lateral variations in whole-rock and clay geochemistry show westward enrichment in Mg, from Mg_oct = 0.6–1.6. This is consistent with persistence of saline, alkaline Paleolake Olduvai to the west, and the presence of groundwater wetlands and other freshwater paleoenvironments to the east. Stone artifact mass density also varies systematically across the basal Bed II deposits, ranging from 10^0.0 to 10^4.3 g of artifacts per cubic meter of excavated sediment. Significant correlation is found between clay geochemistry and the density of artifacts excavated from associated archeological trenches (r² = 0.59, p < 0.01). This relationship supports models of hominin land use in which artifact use and discard is concentrated near freshwater paleoenvironments such as wetlands associated with surface and groundwater discharge. Independent paleoenvironmental proxies such as clay geochemistry allow quantitative hypothesis testing to improve our understanding of early hominin behavior and paleoecology.     

Sediment geochemistry in coastal maritime Antarctica (Admiralty Bay, King George Island): Evidence from rare earths and other elements

We report the concentrations of 22 elements in short coastal sediment cores of Admiralty Bay (King George Island, Antarctica) determined by Neutron Activation Analysis. We focus the discussion on rare earth elements (REE) because their fractionation patterns in sediments relative to local sources may offer insights about weathering, transportation, deposition, and diagenetic processes. We found strong correlations between REE and Th, indicating detrital origin. Despite strong Eh gradients, the Th-normalized redox-sensitive elements (e.g., Eu, Ce, Fe, As, and others) showed little variability within the sedimentary environment. The exceptions were U (depleted in the upper few centimeters) and Br (enriched in the upper few centimeters). While U appears to be removed from seawater via uptake across the boundary of reducing sediments, the mechanisms driving Br accumulation are unclear, but perhaps related to increasing diatom production driven by regional warming. A comparison with published concentrations from rocks representing the regional eroding units showed that the characteristics of source rock could be recognized in the REE fractionation patterns in our sediments. These results imply no significant alteration during weathering and sediment transport in the coastal region of Admiralty Bay and the prevalence of strong periglacial erosion in ice-free areas of maritime Antarctica in spite of the relatively mild regional environmental setting (e.g., high moisture and high temperatures).     

Waulsortian-like mounds of the Mississippian Pekisko Formation, Northwestern Alberta: Petrographic and chemical attributes

The Tournasian age Pekisko carbonates in the Normandville Field (northwestern Alberta) form waulsortian-like, bryozoan/crinoid mounds that developed in fairly deep, low energy, cool water systems, close to the ramp margin. Three main depositional environments occur: (1) crinoidal apron with wackestone, grainstone and floatstone facies; (2) mound flank with grainstone, wackestone, packstone and floatstone facies dipping 35°; and (3) bryozoan mound core, composed of rudstone and floatstone facies with fenestrate bryozoa, minor crinoids and carbonate mud. Local highs due to fault-bounded blocks, created from the collapse of the Devonian Peace River High, may have controlled the location of mound nucleation.Diagenesis of the bryozoan/crinoid mounds included calcite cementation, compaction, dolomitization, silicification, and hydrocarbon emplacement events. The mound core facies contains submarine fascicular optic calcite and bladed/prismatic calcite cements, and later ferroan, brightly luminescent, pore-filling blocky spar cement. The crinoid apron facies contains syntaxial cement associated with crinoids, and the ferroan blocky spar cement. The mounds are dominantly limestone; however, in one well, dolomite dominates the lower section. Four types of dolomite have been identified: partial replacive; chemical-compaction-related, pervasive dolomite and saddle dolomite cement. All dolomites are non-stoichiometric (CaCO₃ mole% 56.6–62.6). The partial, zoned replacive dolomite replaces micrite and syntaxial rim calcite in mound flank and crinoid apron facies. The chemical compaction-related dolomite is found along dissolution seams and stylolites and has similar CL characteristics to the replacive dolomite. The pervasive dolomite is fabric destructive and has dull cores and bright rims in CL. Saddle dolomite (0.15 mm) has brightly-luminescent, concentric zoning and occurs in vugs and fossil pore spaces.Chemical and isotopic analysis of the bryozoan/crinoid mounds indicate that the original marine signatures in micrite, early cements, some crinoids and brachiopods have been preserved. However, carbon isotopic values for some crinoids, matrix and dolomite show more positive values compared to known Mississippian carbonate values. Recrystallization during shallow burial has reset the oxygen isotopic composition of some crinoids and micrite. Oxygen and carbon isotopic compositions of most dolomites overlap with altered crinoids and early calcite cements. However, saddle dolomites have lighter δ¹⁸O values, similar to saddle dolomites from the Devonian Wabamun Group in this area. The isotopic variations in later ferroan calcite cements show an inverted-J trend, possibly due to variable amounts of water-rock interaction. While the Sr-isotopic ratio of submarine calcite cement coincides with that of Mississippian seawater, the later ferroan calcite cement is more radiogenic, indicating a different source of fluids.