Chlorine-36 in groundwater of the United States: empirical data

Natural production of the radionuclide chlorine-36 (³⁶Cl) has provided a valuable tracer for groundwater studies. The nuclear industry, especially the testing of thermonuclear weapons, has also produced large amounts of ³⁶Cl that can be detected in many samples of groundwater. In order to be most useful in hydrologic studies, the natural production prior to 1952 should be distinguished from more recent artificial sources. The object of this study was to reconstruct the probable preanthropogenic levels of ³⁶Cl in groundwater in the United States. Although significant local variations exist, they are superimposed on a broad regional pattern of ³⁶Cl/Cl ratios in the United States. Owing to the influence of atmospherically transported ocean salt, natural ratios of ³⁶Cl/total Cl are lowest near the coast and increase to a maximum in the central Rocky Mountains of the United States. Electronic Publication     

Estimation of groundwater evaporation and salt flux from Owens Lake, California, USA

Groundwater evaporation and subsequent precipitation of soluble salts at Owens Lake in eastern California have created one of the single largest sources of airborne dust in the USA, yet the evaporation and salt flux have not been fully quantified. In this study, we compare eddy correlation, microlysimeters and solute profiling methods to determine their validity and sensitivity in playa environments. These techniques are often used to estimate evaporative losses, yet have not been critically compared at one field site to judge their relative effectiveness and accuracy. Results suggest that eddy correlation methods are the most widely applicable for the variety of conditions found on large playa lakes. Chloride profiling is shown to be highly sensitive to thermal and density-driven fluxes in the near surface and, as a result, appears to underestimate yearly groundwater evaporation. Yearly mean groundwater evaporation from the playa surface estimated from the three study areas was found to range from 88 to 104 mm year⁻¹, whereas mean evaporation from the brine-covered areas was 872 mm year⁻¹. Uncertainties on these mean rates were estimated to be ±25%, based on comparisons between eddy correlation and lysimeter estimates. On a yearly basis, evaporation accounts for approximately 47 × 10⁶ m³ of water loss from the playa surface and open-water areas of the lake. Over the playa area, as much as 7.5 × 10⁸ kg (7.5 × 10⁵ t) of salt are annually concentrated by evaporation at or near the playa surface, much of which appears to be lost during dust storms in area.     

A note on “Origin of components in Chilean thermal waters” by

Risacher et al. (2011) have presented voluminous data on thermal waters of Chile that is quite appreciable; however, their work still falls short on several counts. The most notable shortcoming of the work is the presentation and treatment of data. The interpretations are based on questionable premises (viz., extent of seawater intrusion) and considerations (viz., using average chemical composition of rock types for geochemical modeling, considering volcanic rocks as the only rock type in contact with the geothermal fluids) and assumptions not always substantiated by facts (with proper references) could have been corroborated. Use of Cl/Br ratio for discrimination purpose is unconvincing, considering the uncertainty in the measurement of low (<1 mg/L) Br concentration.     

Evaluation of groundwater quality in coastal areas: implications for sustainable agriculture

Seawater intrusion is a problem in the coastal areas of Korea. Most productive agricultural fields are in the western and southern coastal areas of the country where irrigation predominantly relies on groundwater. Seawater intrusion has affected agricultural productivity. To evaluate progressive encroachment of saline water, the Korean government established a seawater intrusion monitoring well network, especially in the western and southern part of the peninsula. Automatic water levels and EC monitoring and periodic chemical analysis of groundwater help track salinization. Salinization of fresh groundwater is highly associated with groundwater withdrawal. A large proportion of the groundwaters are classified as Na–Cl and Ca–Cl types. The Na–Cl types represent effects of seawater intrusion. The highest EC level was over 1.6 km inland and high Cl values were observed up to 1.2 km inland. Lower ratios of Na/Cl and SO₄/Cl than seawater values indicate the seawater encroachment. A linear relation between Na and Cl represents simple mixing of the fresh groundwater with the seawater. The saline Na–Cl typed groundwaters showed Br/Cl ratios similar to or less than seawater values. The Ca–HCO₃ type groundwaters had the highest Br/Cl ratios. Substantial proportions of the groundwaters showed potential for salinity and should be better managed for sustainable agriculture.     

碳酸锶废渣酸浸液的钙锶分离研究

对碳酸锶废渣酸浸液进行蒸发、结晶、过滤,得到初步纯化的氯化锶,再对其进行水溶、除钙等处理,以达到精制氯化锶的效果。在得到高纯氯化锶溶液的同时,回收了氯化钙。该方法通过简单的操作实现了碳酸锶废渣酸浸液的钙锶分离。     

Biological effects of anthropogenic salt-load on the aquatic Fauna: A synthesis of 17 years of biological survey on the rivers Werra and Weser

The reduction and the smoothened amplitudes of the chloride concentrations since 2000 have resulted in a gradual positive development of the aquatic fauna in the River Werra. In the salinized section of the river increasing species numbers have been determined along the salinity gradient, which shows maximum chloride concentrations of about 2500 mg/l, maximum potash concentrations at approximately 200 mg/l, and magnesia concentrations peaked at 320 mg/l. As an immediate consequence of the reduction in salt concentration the immigration of various caddis fly species into the lower River Werra was observed. The Number of taxa per sample rose from 5 to more than 30 in the lower Werra region. Changes in species-richness could be seen more frequently in river sections where chloride concentrations fluctuated around 1500 mg/l.     

硫酸铁钾转化法制取硫酸钾

以钛白副产绿矾和氯化钾为原料 ,采取硫酸铁钾转化法制备硫酸钾。该工艺既具有反应时间短、操作控制方便、产品质量符合国标要求等优点 ,又治理了钛白粉厂环境污染 ;既具有一定的经济效益 ,又有一定的社会效益。     

Chloride in precipitation and streamwater for the upland catchment of river severn,mid-wales; some consequences for hydrochemical models

Variations in the concentration of Cl in rainfall and stream runoff are presented for two catchments in the Hafren forest of mid-Wales, Great Britain. Despite the large fluctuations in rainfall concentrations, Cl in the streamwater remains relatively constant. Using the two-reservoir Birkenes model, an attempt was made to simulate observed Cl in streamwater. The original model was unable to reproduce the observations and several modifications are suggested to provide better simulations. The resulting model is not the only one capable of reproducing the observations; other hydrochemical models will most probably also achieve this although emphasis will in each case be placed on different aspects. In this paper, it is suggested that the stochastic properties of water movement and chemical processes can account for the streamwater chemistry responses observed. On the catchment scale these processes will lead to an apparently deterministic behaviour that may well be described by simple relationships.     

Study of evaporation and recharge in desert soil using environmental tracers, New Mexico, USA

 The purpose of this study is to investigate the rates and mechanisms of recharge and evaporation in soils of a desert environment using two environmental tracers (chloride and oxygen-18). The profiles of chloride concentration and oxygen-18 enrichment in soil-water, together with the depth distribution of water content in soil, reveal information about long-term recharge and instantaneous evaporation processes without needing to know the physical properties of the soil. Three holes were hand-augured, in different desert settings in southeastern New Mexico. The chloride concentration profiles were used, with the chloride mass balance method, to estimate long-term recharge rates in these three holes as 0.5, 0.8, and 2.4 mm yr^–1. Analysis using a bimodal flow and transport model shows that possibly 85% of the recharge occurs via movement of water through preferred pathways in the root zone. Preferential flow was evident in all three sampling sites. Clay layers have a noticeable effect on the development of water content distribution and thus on oxygen-18 enrichment and chloride concentration profiles. The spatial variation in clay layering partly explains the variation in recharge rate estimates. Received: 13 October 1995 · Accepted: 15 November 1995     

Isotopic and hydrochemical studies of groundwater flow and salinity in the Southern Upper Rhine Graben

In order to determine the origin and the propagation mechanisms of highly concentrated chloride brines within the Quaternary aquifer system in the southern part of the Upper Rhine Graben, a combined isotope (H, O, C) and hydrochemical analysis was carried out. Groundwater recharge in this area is a complex system, consisting of local precipitation, river bank filtration, lateral flow from the Graben borders and, to a minor extent, an old Pleistocene component. In some areas, groundwater consists of up to 90% of recent bank filtrate, reaching depths down to at least 100 m. The isotopic and hydrochemical results show, that the elevated chloride concentrations in the Quaternary aquifer mainly result from leaky settling basins charged by the French potash mines until the mid 1970s. Input of natural brines coming from tertiary salt diapirs is of only minor importance. While infiltrating, the anthropogenic brines were strongly diluted by local river bank filtrate of the Rhine. Nevertheless, maximum chloride concentrations nowadays still reach some 10,000 mg/l at the base of the aquifer at a depth of more than 100 m below surface. The main volume of the brines is stored in the less permeable lower part of the quaternary sediments (Breisgau-Formation) whereas only a minor part is transported northwards with the rapid convective groundwater flow. Brines undergoing only dilution preserve their hydrochemical characteristics (NaCl-type). In contrast, brines recirculated from the Breisgau-Formation show a northwards increasing alteration through ion exchange processes. Potassium and sodium may be fixed in the fine grained aquifer material while calcium is set free into the groundwater. After a flow distance of about 12 km, complex hydraulic interactions between groundwater and surface waters lead to the rise of strongly diluted and hydrochemically altered brines with chloride contents up to maximum 700 mg/l. The presented case study is an example for a detailed analysis of a multi-component groundwater mixing system using combined isotope and hydrochemical methods. Furthermore, cation exchange is shown as a major process affecting the hydrochemical evolution of the young groundwater in the southern Upper Rhine Graben which is locally strongly polluted by chloride as a consequence of former potash mining.