The role of sodium bicarbonate in the nucleation of noctilucent clouds

It is proposed that a component of meteoric smoke, sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO₃), provides particularly effective condensation nuclei for noctilucent clouds. This assertion is based on three conditions being met. The first is that NaHCO₃ is present at sufficient concentration (10⁴ cm^–3) in the upper mesosphere between 80 and 90 km. It is demonstrated that there is strong evidence for this based on recent laboratory measurements coupled with atmospheric modelling. The second condition is that the thermodynamics of NaHCO₃(H₂O)_n cluster formation allow spontaneous nucleation to occur under mesospheric conditions at temperatures below 140 K. The Gibbs free energy changes for forming clusters with n = 1 and 2 were computed from quantum calculations using hybrid density functional/Hartree-Fock (B3LYP) theory and a large basis set with added polarization and diffuse functions. The results were then extrapolated to higher n using an established dependence of the free energy on cluster size and the free energy for the sublimation of H₂O to bulk ice. A 1-dimensional model of sodium chemistry was then employed to show that spontaneous nucleation to form ice particles (n > 100) should occur between 84 and 89 km in the high-latitude summer mesosphere. The third condition is that other metallic components of meteoric smoke are less effective condensation nuclei, so that the total number of potential nuclei is small relative to the amount of available H₂O. Quantum calculations indicate that this is probably the case for major constituents such as Fe(OH)₂, FeO₃ and MgCO₃.     

IMPACT: an implicit time integration scheme for chemical species and families

The implicit time integration scheme of Stott and Harwood (1993) was proposed as an efficient scheme for use in three-dimensional chemical models of the atmosphere. The scheme was designed for chemistry schemes using chemical families, in which species with short lifetimes are grouped into longer-lived families. Further study with more complex chemistry, more species and reactions showed the scheme to be non-convergent and unstable under certain conditions; particularly for the perturbed chemical scenarios of polar stratospheric winters. In this work the scheme has been improved by revising the treatment of families and the convergence properties of the scheme. The new scheme has been named IMPACT (IMPlicit Algorithm for Chemical Time-stepping). It remains easy to implement and produces simulations that compare well with integrations using more accurate higher order schemes.     

Magnetic properties of soils from sites with different geological and environmental settings

Measurements of magnetic susceptibility of soils, reflecting magnetic enhancement of topsoils due to atmospherically deposited magnetic particles of industrial origin, are used recently in studies dealing with outlining polluted areas, as well as with approximate determination of soil contamination with heavy metals. One of the natural limitations of this method is magnetic enhancement of soils caused by weathering magnetically rich parent rock material. In this study we compare magnetic properties of soils from regions with different geological and environmental settings. Four areas in the Czech Republic and Austria were investigated, representing both magnetically rich and poor geology, as well as point-like and diffuse pollution sources. Topsoil and subsoil samples were investigated and the effect of geology and pollution was examined. Magnetic data including mass and volume magnetic susceptibility, frequency-dependent susceptibility, and main magnetic characteristics such as coercivity (Hc and Hcr) and magnetization (Ms and Mrs) parameters are compared with heavy metal contents. The aim of the paper is to assess the applicability of soil magnetometry under different geological-environmental conditions in terms of magnetic discrimination of dominant lithogenic/anthropogenic contributions to soil magnetic signature. Our results suggest that lithology represents the primary effect on soil magnetic properties. However, in case of significant atmospheric deposition of anthropogenic particles, this contribution can be clearly recognized, independent of the type of pollution source (point-like or diffuse), and discriminated from the lithogenic one. Different soil types apparently play no role. Possible effects of climate were not investigated in this study.     

气候和气候变化领域的研究进展

该文回顾了过去几十年来中国气象科学研究院在气候和气候变化研究方面的成果, 主要包括对我国历史气候资料的恢复、重建和整理, 气候区划, 对我国气温和降水的研究, 对青藏高原温度和降水、近地层与边界层地-气过程, 大气热源特征和臭氧变化的研究, 古气候模拟, 对气候变化的预测理论和方法以及气候和气候变化对我国社会、经济的影响等方面的研究。近50年中国气象科学研究院收集大量气候资料并整理出版了《中国近五百年旱涝分布图集》; 对风能等资源进行了气候区划; 明确了近几十年中国地区在20世纪40年代和90年代出现了两个暖期, 20世纪50—60年代出现了相对冷期; 在全球变暖的背景下, 以四川为中心的西南地区自20世纪50年代到80年代一直在变冷; 20世纪80年代以后, 多雨带由华北南移到长江中下游地区; 提出青藏高原近地层与边界层地-气过程的综合物理图像; 发现青藏高原夏季臭氧低值中心; 模拟出青藏高原隆起过程中中国气候变化特征; 揭示出东亚季风环流系统及其成员; 设计了多种预报方法; 还将气候和气候变化研究成果向国家经济转化。     

Electrification of volcanic plumes

Volcanic lightning, perhaps the most spectacular consequence of the electrification of volcanic plumes, has been implicated in the origin of life on Earth, and may also exist in other planetary atmospheres. Recent years have seen volcanic lightning detection used as part of a portfolio of developing techniques to monitor volcanic eruptions. Remote sensing measurement techniques have been used to monitor volcanic lightning, but surface observations of the atmospheric electric Potential Gradient (PG) and the charge carried on volcanic ash also show that many volcanic plumes, whilst not sufficiently electrified to produce lightning, have detectable electrification exceeding that of their surrounding environment. Electrification has only been observed associated with ash-rich explosive plumes, but there is little evidence that the composition of the ash is critical to its occurrence. Different conceptual theories for charge generation and separation in volcanic plumes have been developed to explain the disparate observations obtained, but the ash fragmentation mechanism appears to be a key parameter. It is unclear which mechanisms or combinations of electrification mechanisms dominate in different circumstances. Electrostatic forces play an important role in modulating the dry fall-out of ash from a volcanic plume. Beyond the local electrification of plumes, the higher stratospheric particle concentrations following a large explosive eruption may affect the global atmospheric electrical circuit. It is possible that this might present another, if minor, way by which large volcanic eruptions affect global climate. The direct hazard of volcanic lightning to communities is generally low compared to other aspects of volcanic activity.     

东北夏季气温变异的区域差异及其与大气环流和海表温度的关系

利用1951～2000年中国东北地区23个台站资料，对东北夏季气温的时空分布进行了研究，发现其变化除具有整体的一致性外，东北南部和北部的夏季气温在年际和年代际时间尺度都表现出很大不同，其中北部区域的夏季气温在1987～1988年间发生了一次显著的气候突变. 另外，剔除夏季气温全区一致变化的年份后，南北两区夏季气温与大气环流和海表温度的关系表明：突变前，影响北部和南部冷/热夏季的大气环流形势存在显著的不同，关键海域亦有很大差异：影响南部的为中纬度西太平洋和印度洋部分海域，影响北部的主要为ENSO事件；突变后，两区的夏季气温及相应大气环流和关键海区都趋于一致. 在整个分析时段内，北部夏季气温与东亚夏季风存在显著负相关，而南部的关系则不明显.     

PM10 and heavy metal measurements in an industrial area of southern Italy

Atmospheric particulate concentrations and heavy metal content are measured from March to July 2001 at an industrial site located in a rural zone of the southern Italy. PM₁₀ samples are collected by a low-volume sampler and each sample is analysed by AAS techniques for its content of Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn. We measure also temperature, atmospheric pressure and relative humidity, and we collect anemometric data. The study purpose is the investigation of pollutant levels in an industrial area located in a rather unpolluted region and the characterization of the correlation structure among particulate concentrations, heavy metal content and local meteorological parameters. Data analysis is carried out by means of univariate and multivariate statistical methods. In the investigated period, the average value of PM₁₀ daily concentrations (24 μg Nm^− 3) does not exceed the national standard of 40 μg Nm^− 3 and only nine values are higher than the European daily limit value of 50 μg Nm^− 3. Particularly, the occurrence of two anomalous values (183 μg Nm^− 3 in 3 March and 94 μg Nm^− 3 in 22 June) seems to be related to no-local events as confirmed both by in situ data measured in the AQM network of Potenza city (about 10 km far from the study area) and by remote measurements performed in the same days. Regarding the heavy metal levels, we observe high levels of Cr (34 ng Nm^− 3), Ni (85 ng Nm^− 3) and Zn (214 ng Nm^− 3) in agreement with the local industrial source pattern. The multivariate analysis, carried out using meteorological parameters as exogenous variables, allow to evaluate the role of the different variables as driving factors of the correlation structure among the metals.     

Statistics of Scalar Fields in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer Based on Large-Eddy Simulations. Part II: Forced Convection

Forced convection in a quasi-steady atmospheric boundary layer is investigated based on a large-eddy simulation (LES) model. The performed simulations show that in the upper portion of the mixed layer the dimensionless (in terms of mixed layer scales) vertical gradients of temperature, humidity, and wind velocity depend on the dimensionless height z/z _i and the Reech number Rn. The peak values of variances and covariances at the top of the mixed layer, scaled in terms of the interfacial scales, are functions of the interfacial Richardson number Ri. As a result expressions for the entrainment rates, in the case when the interfacial layer has a finite depth, and a condition for the presence of moistening or drying regimes in the mixed layer, are derived. Profiles of dimensionless scalar moments in the mixed layer are proposed to be expressed in terms of two empirical similarity functions F _m and F _i , dependent on dimensionless height z/z _i , and the interfacial Richardson number Ri. The obtained similarity expressions adequately approximate the LES profiles of scalar statistics, and properly represent the impact of stability, shear, and entrainment. They are also consistent with the parameterization proposed for free convection in the first part of this paper.     

Simulation of a Stably Stratified Atmospheric Boundary Layer Using One-Dimensional Turbulence

One-dimensional turbulence (ODT) is a single-column simulation in which vertical motions are represented by an unsteady advective process, rather than their customary representation by a diffusive process. No space or time averaging of mesh-resolved motions is invoked. Molecular-transport scales can be resolved in ODT simulations of laboratory-scale flows, but this resolution of these scales is prohibitively expensive in ODT simulations of the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL), except possibly in small subregions of a non-uniform mesh.Here, two methods for ODT simulation of the ABL on uniform meshes are described and applied to the GABLS (GEWEX Atmospheric Boundary Layer Study; GEWEX is the Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment) stable boundary-layer intercomparison case. One method involves resolution of the roughness scale using a fixed eddy viscosity to represent subgrid motions. The other method, which is implemented at lower spatial resolution, involves a variable eddy viscosity determined by the local mesh-resolved flow, as in multi-dimensional large-eddy simulation (LES). When run at typical LES resolution, it reproduces some of the key high-resolution results, but its fidelity is lower in some important respects. It is concluded that a more elaborate empirically based representation of the subgrid physics, closely analogous to closures currently employed in LES of the ABL, might improve its performance substantially, yielding a cost-effective ABL simulation tool. Prospects for further application of ODT to the ABL, including possible use of ODT as a near-surface subgrid closure framework for general circulation modeling, are assessed.