Impact of coherent eddies on airborne measurements of vertical turbulent fluxes

During the Hydrological-Atmospheric Pilot Experiment (HAPEX)-Sahel, which took place in Niger in the transitional period between the wet and dry seasons, two French aircraft probed the Sahelian boundary layer to measure sensible and latent heat fluxes. The measurements over the Niamey area often revealed organised structures of a few km scale that were associated with both thermals and dry intrusions. We study the impact of these coherent structures using a single day’s aircraft-measured fluxes and a numerical simulation of that day with a mesoscale model. The numerical simulation at high horizontal resolution (250 m) contains structures that evolve from streaks in the early morning to cells by noon. This simulation shows distribution, variance and skewness similar to the observations. In particular, the numerical simulation shows dry intrusions that can penetrate deeply into the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL), and even reach the surface in some cases, which is in accordance with the observed highly negatively skewed water vapour fluctuations. Dry intrusions and thermals organised at a few km scale give skewed flux statistics and can introduce large errors in measured fluxes. We use the numerical simulation to: (i) evaluate the contribution of the organised structures to the total flux, and (ii) estimate the impact of the organised structures on the systematic and random errors resulting from the 1D sampling of the aircraft as opposed to the 2D numerical simulation estimate. We find a significant contribution by the organised structures to the total resolved fluxes. When rolls occur, and for a leg length of about 30 times the ABL depth, the 1D sampled flux is shown to be sometimes 20% lower than the corresponding 2D flux when the 1D sampling direction is the same as the main axis of the rolls, whereas the systematic error is much lower when the direction of the leg is transverse to the rolls. In the case of cells, an underestimate of around 10% can still be observed with the 1D approach independent of direction, due to poor sampling of the energy-containing scales.     

山西夏季层积云降水微物理特征分析

利用Droplet Measureinent TeehnologY（DMT）资料,分析了山西2008年7月17日降水性层积云的云微物理结构,通过对云中粒子浓度、直径、二维图像以及谱型分布变化,并结合宏观记录特征,详细分析了飞机上升和下降阶段云系的垂直结构特征。结果表明：飞机上升阶段云系为高积云,飞机下降阶段云系为高积云一层积云结构,Cloud Droplet Probe（CDP）和Cloud Imaging Probe（CIP）测得粒子浓度偏大,最大浓度分别为236em。和9．74cm^-3。层积云云中微物理量水平分布特征具有明显的不均匀性。上升阶段降水的雨滴主要是冰粒子融化形成的,冷云过程占主导地位,在0℃层附近存在明显的融化层亮带。下降阶段降水机制为高积云冷云过程和层积云暖云过程相结合。     

Airborne measurements of turbulent trace gas fluxes and analysis of eddy structure in the convective boundary layer over complex terrain

Using the new high-frequency measurement equipment of the research aircraft DO 128, which is described in detail, turbulent vertical fluxes of ozone and nitric oxide have been calculated from data sampled during the ESCOMPTE program in the south of France. Based on airborne turbulence measurements, radiosonde data and surface energy balance measurements, the convective boundary layer (CBL) is examined under two different aspects. The analysis covers boundary-layer convection with respect to (i) the control of CBL depth by surface heating and synoptic scale influences, and (ii) the structure of convective plumes and their vertical transport of ozone and nitric oxides. The orographic structure of the terrain causes significant differences between planetary boundary layer (PBL) heights, which are found to exceed those of terrain height variations on average. A comparison of boundary-layer flux profiles as well as mean quantities over flat and complex terrain and also under different pollution situations and weather conditions shows relationships between vertical gradients and corresponding turbulent fluxes. Generally, NO_x transports are directed upward independent of the terrain, since primary emission sources are located near the ground. For ozone, negative fluxes are common in the lower CBL in accordance with the deposition of O₃ at the surface.The detailed structure of thermals, which largely carry out vertical transports in the boundary layer, are examined with a conditional sampling technique. Updrafts mostly contain warm, moist and NO_x loaded air, while the ozone transport by thermals alternates with the background ozone gradient. Evidence for handover processes of trace gases to the free atmosphere can be found in the case of existing gradients across the boundary-layer top. An analysis of the size of eddies suggests the possibility of some influence of the heterogeneous terrain in mountainous area on the length scales of eddies.     

The Kwinana Coastal Fumigation Study: II – Growth of the Thermal Internal Boundary Layer

Aircraft measurements of potential temperature and turbulent kinetic energy are used to examine the growth of the thermal internal boundary layer (TIBL) in sea-breeze flows on four selected days of a coastal fumigation study performed in 1995 at Kwinana in Western Australia. The aircraft data, together with radiosonde measurements taken on the same days, show a multi-layered low-level onshore flow in the vertical with a superadiabatic layer extending to about 50 m above the water surface on all four days. On the first three days the layer above the superadiabatic layer was neutral, typically 200 m deep, capped by a stably stratified region, whereas on the remaining day it was fully stable. The occurrence of the neutral layer on most experimental days contrasts with the more usual situation involving an entirely stable onshore flow. A composite approach based on both temperature and turbulence data is used to provide a pragmatic but self-consistent definition of the TIBL height. The data for the first three days indicate that the TIBL grows rapidly into the neutrally stratified region to the top of the region within about 2 km from the coast, with a very slow subsequent growth into the stable stratification aloft. On the other hand, the TIBL grows only to about 200 m within a distance of 7 km from the coast on the fourth day due to a strong stable stratification.An existing numerical TIBL model based on the slab approach, capable of describing the TIBL growth in both neutral and stable environments, and a recent analytical model, more efficient for operational use, are used to simulate the aircraft TIBL observations. The predictions by both models agree reasonably well with the data.     

On the potential importance of sulfur-induced activation of soot particles in nascent jet aircraft exhaust plumes

The chemical conversion of emitted SO₂ and SO₃ to gaseous H₂SO₄ in nascent aircraft exhaust plumes and subsequent adsorption of the fully oxidized sulfur species on the surfaces of emitted combustion aerosols (soot) is investigated. Results are presented for the mass fractions of SO₃ and H₂SO₄ acquired per soot particle early in the plume, suggesting that sulfur-induced activation is an efficient pathway to increase the ability of exhaust soot emitted at altitude to host heterogeneous chemical reactions and to trigger the formation of cirrus clouds.     

中国飞机积冰的气候特征

本文利用美国国家环境预报中心（NCP）和国家大气研究中心（NCAR）联合处理的全球大气40年（1958－1997）资料，对近40年中国飞机积冰的气候特征进行了分析，通过功率谱及交叉谱分析的方法对南京地区的飞机积冰发生频率进行了周期变化的分析，并利用k均值法进行了飞机积冰的航空气候区划，给出了飞机积冰的时空分布特征。     

A Case Study of the Near-Neutral Coastal Internal Boundary-Layer Growth: Aircraft Measurements Compared with Different Model Estimates

A simplified version of a model of the internalboundary layer evolution is compared with aircraftmeasurements across the southern part of the east coast ofSweden (Blekinge). The two flight occasions used hererepresent relatively high wind velocities and negligiblesurface heat flux. Both the vertical potential temperaturegradient and the surface temperaturedifference between land and sea are small. Modelpredictions of the internal boundary-layer (IBL)height agree well with data, for both short and largerdistances from the coastline. The contributions to theIBL growth from the mechanical turbulence and theZilitinkevich correction are discussed, as are thesensitivities of the growth to a number of physicalparameters. In near neutralconditions, the vertical potential temperaturegradient is found to be an important parameter for thegrowth of the IBL.A comparison with several simple model estimates forthe height of the IBL is presented. The majority ofthe models overestimate the IBL height. Some of themodels give reasonable results close to the coast, butgenerally the simple models perform less well atlarger distances.     

华北一次积层混合云微物理和降水特征的数值模拟与飞机观测对比研究

为考察云数值模式中的云物理方案和对实例云物理和降水过程的模拟能力, 本文将中尺度数值模式(WRF)模拟的华北地区一次积层混合云的微物理结构特征、降水过程与国家科技支撑计划重点项目环北京地区三架飞机联合云探测实验数据以及雷达、地面降水观测数据进行了深入的比较和验证研究。结果表明:WRF 模式能够较好地模拟出此次积层混合云的云系演变、雷达回波和降水分布特征。对比结果是:(1)模式模拟的云中液态水浓度(LWC)与飞机观测值具有较好的一致性, 在3℃ 层, 飞机观测的LWC 最大值为0.8 g m-3, 模拟的飞机路径上的LWC 最大值为0.78 g m-3, 两者接近;在－8℃ 层, 飞机观测LWC 最大值为1.5 g m-3, 模拟的飞机路径上的LWC 最大值为1.1 g m-3, 模拟值偏小;在－5℃ 层以下, 模式能够准确模拟云中水凝物的垂直分布, 包括融化层的分布, 模拟的水凝物质量浓度与实测吻合。而对固态水, 在－6～－10℃, 由于模式中雪粒子凇附增长过程较大, 聚合过程发生的高度偏高, 导致模式模拟的固态水凝物质量浓度高于实测值, 说明模式在雪粒子增长过程的处理方面有待进一步改进。(2)在云粒子谱参数方面, 在－8℃ 层, 由于模拟的雪粒子质量浓度偏高, 所以模式计算的粒子谱的截距和斜率都小于飞机观测值, 模拟偏小;在－5℃ 层, 两者比较接近;在3℃ 层, 由于云中小粒子浓度逐渐减少, 所以模式计算的斜率接近观测值, 但是截距大于观测值, 说明模式降水粒子谱参数的描述方案有待改进, 模式中谱形参数μ 不应一直设置为0, 而是应该随着高度变化而变化。     

激光雷达反演边界层高度方法评估及在北京的应用

边界层高度是影响大气边界层发展和空气污染程度的重要因子,是环境和气候研究的重要参数。本文利用激光雷达对北京地区2011年5月至2012年4月的边界层高度进行探测分析,采用小波协方差方法反演边界层高度,评估了该方法的适用性。得到基于小波协方差方法自动判断边界层高度的最优参数组合,激光雷达与飞机探测结果对比一致性较好;与探空结果相关系数0.88,激光雷达反演的边界层高度略偏高。当激光雷达的垂直分辨率为30 m时,更加适合北京地区的步长和阈值分别为210 m和0.05;当激光雷达的垂直分辨率为15 m时,步长和阈值分别为135 m和0.05。分析期间,不同季节边界层高度日变化有明显的不同,夏季14:00（北京时）左右达到最高,较高的边界层高度可维持3~4 h,平均可达1.30 km;冬季较高边界层高度只能维持2 h左右,平均为1.08 km。有云与无云天气边界层日变化特征以及边界层高度存在显著的差异,云的存在减少了到达地面的直接辐射,抑制了湍流的发展,进一步抑制了边界层的发展;本文也将激光雷达反演边界层高度结果应用于观测时期边界层高度与地面污染的关系研究中,统计得到边界层高度与PM2.5浓度的相关系数为－0.340。     

Mesoscale Wind Field Modifications over the Baltic Sea

For two consecutive days during spring 1997, the windfield over the Baltic Sea has been studied. Thestrength of the geostrophic wind speed is the majordifference in synoptic conditions between these twodays. During both days, the mesoscale wind field overmost of the Baltic Sea is quite heterogeneous; themodifications primarily being caused by the land-seacontrasts. On the day with the weaker wind speed,sea-breeze circulations develop. As a consequence, thewind direction at lower levels is more or lessopposite to the geostrophic over large areas of theBaltic Sea and the surface wind speed decreases withoffshore distance. Wind speed maxima caused by the seabreezes are found along the east coasts in the studiedarea. For the other day, the slow growth of a stableinternal boundary layer over the sea also gives asurface wind speed decrease with offshore distancefrom the coast.