Identification of water-bearing fractures in hard rock terrain by electrical conductivity logs, India

For the delineation of water-bearing fractures in hard rock areas, a new hydro-chemical technique has been developed which is based on electrical conductivity (EC) logs. The EC logs were carried out in experimental shallow bore wells (≈50 m) in three different parts of India. A sharp variation in EC was observed near water-bearing fractures in hard rock areas. To access applications of this technique, different locations in India were selected and experimental bore wells (≈50 m) were drilled. These were:

Fracture network characteristics of a deep borehole in the Table Mountain Group (TMG), South Africa

Core samples from an 800-m deep borehole at the Rietfontein Farm, 10 km west of Graafwater, Western Cape, South Africa, were examined and interpreted for the hydrogeological significance of the Table Mountain Group (TMG) in the area. A suite of fracture data was collected and analysed to characterize the aquifer and conceptualize flow in the vicinity of the hole. Based on these data, the hydraulic conductivity, and density and coating intensity (due to precipitation) of the fractures against depth were computed. The dependence of fracture density on depth is very weak, while the intensity of fracture coatings is closely linked to the distribution of hydraulically active fractures that represents the maximum number of fractures currently open to groundwater flow. Four scenarios of depth ranges reflecting the development of hydraulically active fractures are proposed as a depth model of groundwater flow, implying that the majority of groundwater exists above 400 m depth. The top of the hydraulically inactive fracture zone clearly indicates that no groundwater flow could take place below a depth of about 570 m. The depth model gives a better understanding of the properties of the aquifers in the area and improves conceptual models, considering the lower limit of aquifer depth in particular.

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Résumé Des carottes issues d’un forage profond de 800 m, situé à la ferme Rietfontein à 10 km à l’ouest de Graafwater au Cap Ouest en Afrique du Sud, ont été examinées et analysées dans le cadre de l’étude de l’importance hydrogéologique du Table Mountain Group (TMG) dans la zone. Un ensemble de données de fracture a été collecté et analysé afin de caractériser l’aquifère et de conceptualiser l’écoulement aux alentours du puits. A partir de ces données, la conductivité hydraulique, la densité et l’intensité du remplissage des fractures (causé par la précipitation) ont été calculées en fonction de la profondeur. La relation entre la densité de fracture et la profondeur est faible, alors que l’intensité du remplissage des fractures est intimement liée à la distribution des fractures hydrauliquement actives qui sont définies par le nombre maximum de fractures ouvertes à l’écoulement de l’eau souterraine. Quatre scenarii avec différentes profondeurs représentant le développement de fractures hydrauliquement actives sont proposés comme modèle de la profondeur de l’écoulement souterrain en supposant que la majorité de l’eau souterraine se situe au dessus de 400 m de profondeur. La partie supérieure de la zone de fractures hydrauliquement inactives montre clairement qu’aucun écoulement souterrain ne pourrait avoir lieu en dessous de 570 m de profondeur. Le modèle de profondeur permet une meilleure compréhension des propriétés aquifères dans la zone et améliore les modèles conceptuels en particulier du fait qu’il prenne en compte la limite inférieure de l’aquifère.

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Resumen Se han examinado e interpretado testigos de un sondeo de 800 m realizado en la Granja Rietfontein, situada a 10 km al Oeste de Graafwater, Western Cape, Sudáfrica, para estudiar la importancia hidrogeológica del Grupo Table Mountain (TMG) en el área. Un conjunto de datos de fracturas fueron recogidos y analizados para caracterizar el acuífero y conceptualizar el flujo en las cercanías de la perforación. Basándose en estos datos, se computerizaron la conductividad hidráulica y la densidad y relleno de las fracturas (debida a precipitación) frente a su profundidad. La dependencia de la densidad de fracturación con la profundidad es muy débil, mientras que el relleno de la fractura está directamente ligada con la distribución de las fracturas hidráulicamente activas que representan el máximo número de fracturas abiertas actualmente al flujo de aguas subterráneas. Se propone cuatro escenarios de rangos de profundidad que reflejan el desarrollo de fracturas activas hidráulicamente, como un modelo de profundidad del flujo del agua subterránea que implica que la mayor parte del agua subterránea se encuentra por encima de los 400 m de profundidad. La parte superior de la zona de fracturas hidráulicamente inactivas indica claramente que el flujo del agua subterránea puede producirse por debajo de una profundidad de unos 570 m. El modelo de profundidades ofrece una mejor comprensión de las propiedades de los acuíferos en el área y mejora los modelos conceptuales considerando el límite inferior de la profundidad del acuífero en particular.

     

济阳坳陷罗家地区各向异性页岩储层全波场地震响应模拟及分析

济阳坳陷罗家地区页岩储层的固有各向异性及水平层理发育使得储层呈现VTI（vertical transversely isotropy）各向异性,而VTI各向异性背景下垂直裂缝的发育使得储层进一步呈现等效正交各向异性特征。本文以正交各向异性介质作为罗家页岩油储层模型,在岩石物理建模中应用Backus平均理论将测井尺度的VTI各向异性粗化至地震尺度,并利用Schoenberg理论在VTI各向异性背景中引入垂直裂缝,进而得到正交各向异性等效介质模型,同时考虑裂缝尺度和流体填充等因素。之后,应用各向异性反射率法进行全波场地震正演模拟,计算正交各向异性页岩油储层AVAZ（amplitude versus azimuth）响应,通过振幅的方位特征进行储层裂缝识别。计算结果表明,PP波、PSV波和PSH波方位振幅响应各不相同,且方位振幅分布图的拟合形状可反映裂缝的发育方向,为页岩油储层中裂缝的地震识别提供依据。     

A 2D,fully-coupled,hydro-mechanical,FDEM formulation for modelling fracturing processes in discontinuous,porous rock masses

This paper presents a new, fully-coupled, hydro-mechanical (HM) formulation for a finite-discrete element method computer code. In the newly-developed, hydraulic solver, fluid flow is assumed to occur through the same triangular mesh used for the mechanical calculations. The flow of a viscous, compressible fluid is explicitly solved based on a cubic law approximation. The implementation is verified against closed-form solutions for several flow problems. The approach is then applied to a field-scale simulation of fluid injection in a jointed, porous rock mass. Results show that the proposed method can be used to obtain unique geomechanical insights into coupled HM phenomena.     

Numerical study of multi-period palaeotectonic stress fields in Lower Cambrian shale reservoirs and the prediction of fractures distribution: A case study of the Niutitang Formation in Feng'gang No. 3 block,South China

Fractures not only control the distribution of oil and gas reservoirs, but also are key points in the research of oil and gas reservoir development programmes. The tectonic fractures in the Lower Cambrian shale reservoirs in the Feng'gang No. 3 block are effective reservoir spaces for hydrocarbon accumulation, and these fractures are controlled by palaeotectonic stress fields. Therefore, quantitatively predicting the development and distribution of tectonic fractures in the Lower Cambrian shale reservoir is important for the exploration and exploitation of shale gas in the Feng'gang No. 3 block. In the present study, a reasonable geological, mechanical and mathematical model of the study area was established based on the faults systems interpreted from seismic data, fracture characteristics from drilling data, uniaxial and triaxial compression tests and experiments on the acoustic emissions (AE) of rocks. Then, a three-dimensional (3-D) finite element method is applied to simulate the palaeotectonic stress field with the superposition of the Yanshan and Himalayan movements and used to predict the fracture distribution. The simulation results indicate that the maximum principal stress value within the study area ranged from 269.97 MPa to 281.18 MPa, the minimum principal stress ranged from 58.29 MPa to 79.64 MPa, and the shear stress value ranged from 91.05 MPa to 106.21 MPa. The palaeotectonic stress field is controlled by the fault zone locations. The fracture development zones are mainly controlled by the tectonic stress fields and are located around the faults, at the end of the fault zones, at the inflection point and at the intersection of the fault zones.     

致密储层研究进展和热点问题分析

全球常规油气及非常规油气资源极为丰富,其中致密油气是非常规油气资源的主要类型,是当前非常规油气勘探的重点,也是未来接替常规油气资源的重要领域。致密储层具有油气资源量大、分布面积广、成岩作用强、单井产量较低、储层非均质性强等特点。在富含油气资源的致密储层中,具有良好物性的“甜点”是提高产量的有利勘探目标,其“甜点”主要包括两类,一类为异常高孔带,另一类为裂缝发育带。目前,致密储层的研究现状主要包括致密储层划分、地质特征、形成机理和有利储层预测等。近年来,“甜点”的形成机理和预测成为当前致密储层勘探开发的重要科学问题。因此,致密储层微观孔喉结构表征、致密储层裂缝发育识别表征是目前致密储层研究的热点领域及未来主要发展方向。