Estimation of Scalar Source/Sink Distributions in Plant Canopies Using Lagrangian Dispersion Analysis: Corrections for Atmospheric Stability and Comparison with a Multilayer Canopy Model

Source/sink distributions of heat, water vapour andCO₂ within a rice canopy were inferred using aninverse Lagrangian dispersion analysis and measuredmean profiles of temperature, specific humidity andCO₂ mixing ratio. Monin–Obukhov similarity theorywas used to account for the effects of atmosphericstability on _w(z), the standard deviation ofvertical velocity and _L(z), the Lagrangian timescale of the turbulence. Classical surface layer scaling was applied in the inertial sublayer (z > z_ruf)using the similarity parameter = (z - d)/L, where z is height above ground, d is the zero plane displacementheight for momentum, L is the Obukhov length,and z_ruf 2.3h_c, where h_c iscanopy height. A single length scale h_c, was usedfor the stability parameter 3 = h_c/L in the height range 0.25 < z/h_c < 2.5. This choice is justified by mixing layer theory, which shows that within the roughness sublayer there is one dominant turbulence length scaledetermined by the degree of inflection in the windprofile at the canopy top. In the absence of theoretical or experimental evidence for guidance,standard Monin–Obukhov similarity functions, with = h_c/L, were used to calculate the stabilitydependence of _w(z) and _L(z) in the roughness sublayer. For z/h_c < 0.25 the turbulence length and time scales are influenced by the presence of the lowersurface, and stability effects are minimal. With theseassumptions there was excellent agreement between eddycovariance flux measurements and deductions from theinverse Lagrangian analysis. Stability correctionswere particularly necessary for night time fluxes whenthe atmosphere was stably stratified.The inverse Lagrangian analysis provides a useful toolfor testing and refining multilayer canopy models usedto predict radiation absorption, energy partitioningand CO₂ exchanges within the canopy and at thesoil surface. Comparison of model predictions withsource strengths deduced from the inverse analysisgave good results. Observed discrepancies may be dueto incorrect specification of the turbulent timescales and vertical velocity fluctuations close to theground. Further investigation of turbulencecharacteristics within plant canopies is required toresolve these issues.     

Rangeland production: use of models incorporating aggregated knowledge and fuzzy construction

This work reports on a method using fuzzy membership functions to construct an aggregated interaction matrix in which the summation of variables is scaled according to the way rainfall and soil variables affect water availability to plants and hence influence rangeland productivity. Aggregation of the variables gives a comprehensive value which can be used to predict production. The model increases the predicability of production to 81% compared to models using rainfall alone and a multiplicative parametric one which give predictibilities of 61 and 76% respectively. The results showed that (1) the importance of rainfall in determining production was most important at lower rainfalls i.e. <350 mm; (2) soil texture and particularly slope were important through out the rainfall range (149–700 mm) investigated; and (3) soil depth was only important at the higher >350 mm rainfalls. The aggregated interaction matrix gives a measure of land productive capability.     

结合被动微波和光学遥感的“超级寒潮”广东 地表温度特征及其对马铃薯生长的影响

利用被动微波可穿透云层的优势,基于GCOM-W1/AMSR2（Global Change Observation Mission-Water/ Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer 2）星载被动微波传感器的多通道亮度温度数据,反演了2016年1月下旬“超级寒潮”过程的广东省每日地表温度,分析了寒潮过程中广东省地表温度的时空变化特征。结果表明：在寒潮前后,广东省地表温度呈现出明显的先下降而后上升的趋势,寒潮过程带来的地表最低温度在广东北部大部分地区达到了277 K（4℃）,西南大部分地区为280~282 K（7~9℃）,其余大部分地区278~279 K（5~6℃）;降温幅度在广东南部地区达到了8~12 K（8~12℃）,北部大部分地区为5~7 K（5~7℃）。此外,利用归一化植被指数（NDVI）对植被生长的指示作用,基于HJ-1 A/B卫星的CCD传感器的多通道反射率数据,计算了近3年冬季广东省典型马铃薯种植区域马铃薯叶片的NDVI值,结果表明：马铃薯叶片的NDVI值在此次寒潮过程后出现了明显的下降,大部分地区（55.4%）马铃薯NDVI降低了0.1~0.2,部分地区（17.2%）马铃薯NDVI下降了0.2~0.3;进一步对比此次“超级寒潮”后同时段的前2年数据,发现寒潮后马铃薯叶片NDVI相对于正常年份也低了0.2,表明马铃薯叶片NDVI下降的主要原因是寒潮带来的低温,而不只是马铃薯的正常老化现象。NDVI的降低表明大部分地区马铃薯生长受到了抑制,马铃薯生长状况的这一变化也通过现场调查得到了证实。     

How to increase technology transfers to developing countries: a synthesis of the evidence

The existing United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) has failed to deliver the rate of low-carbon technology transfer (TT) required to curb GHG emissions in developing countries. This failure has exposed the limitations of universalism and renewed interest in bilateral approaches to TT. Gaps are identified in the UNFCCC approach to climate change TT: missing links between international institutions and the national enabling environments that encourage private investment; a non-differentiated approach for (developing) country and technology characteristics; and a lack of clear measurements of the volume and effectiveness of TTs. Evidence from econometric literature and business experience on climate change TT is reviewed, so as to address the identified pitfalls of the UNFCCC process. Strengths and weaknesses of different methodological approaches are highlighted. International policy recommendations are offered aimed at improving the level of emission reductions achieved through TT.     

Rotation Of Trajectories In Lagrangian Stochastic Models Of Turbulent Dispersion

We present a new measure for the rotation of Lagrangian trajectories in turbulence that simplifies and generalises that suggested by Wilson and Flesch ( Boundary-Layer Meteorol. 84, 411–426). The new measure is the cross product of the velocity and acceleration and is directly related to the area, rather than the angle, swept out by the velocity vector. It makes it possible to derive a simple but exact kinematic expression for the mean rotation of the velocity vector and to partition this expression into terms that are closed in terms of Eulerian velocity moments up to second order and unclosed terms. The unclosed terms arise from the interaction of the fluctuating part of the velocity and the rate of change of the fluctuating velocity.We examine the mean rotation of a class of Lagrangian stochastic models that are quadratic in velocity for Gaussian inhomogeneous turbulence. For some of these models, including that of Thomson ( J. Fluid Mech. 180, 113–153), the unclosed part of the mean rotation vanishes identically, while for other models it is non-zero. Thus the mean rotation criterion clearly separates the class of models into two sets, but still does not provide a criterion for choosing a single model.We also show that models for which = 0 are independent of whether the model is derived on the assumption that total Lagrangian velocity is Markovian or whether the fluctuating part is Markovian.     

Generalised observations of wave characteristics on near‐horizontal shore platforms: Synthesis of six case studies from the North Island,New Zealand

Most field studies of wave processes on shore platforms in front of eroding cliffs focus on a single site, revealing aspects of wave dynamics at that location. Here, we analyse data from six platforms around northeastern New Zealand and describe the fundamental control of shore platform width, gradient and elevation on wave processes, including greater attenuation of short‐period waves at lower tidal stages and increases in longer period wave energy towards the cliff toe. These data suggest that empirical formulae developed from coral‐reef environments provide better predictions of wave height on platforms than formulae currently used in shore platform models.