Effect of groundwater interception and irrigation on salinity and piezometric levels of an aquifer

The major strategy used to prevent the discharge of highly saline groundwater to the River Murray in southeastern Australia is groundwater interception and disposal. The basic design principle assumes that the extraction of groundwater from an aquifer hydraulically connected to the river, using a line of pumps positioned close and roughly parallel to the river, will decrease piezometric heads thereby reducing the discharge of saline groundwater to the river. The paper considers one of these schemes which was designed for the Mildura area on the basis of a hydrogeological investigation. It analyses the effects on piezometric head and groundwater salinity due to the groundwater interception scheme and adjacent irrigation activity over a period of several years from January 1980. It is shown that piezometric heads have decreased significantly in the stretch close to the river. A slight reduction in groundwater salinity is also apparent in this stretch except for an area between the river and a holding basin used for disposal of the saline effluents emanating from the groundwater interception scheme. This general reduction in groundwater salinity is mainly caused by pumping from the groundwater interception scheme and recharge from irrigation. The exception in the trend in groundwater salinity is due to the movement of a highly saline body of groundwater from the holding basin towards the River Murray. Results of this Australian experience should be helpful to the designers of similar salinity mitigation schemes elsewhere.     

基于不同郁闭度的青海云杉冠层截留特征研究

祁连山区为石羊河、黑河和疏勒河等内陆河流域的主要水源涵养区域,青海云杉作为祁连山区水源涵养林的主要建群种,对流域尺度的水文过程起到了重要的作用。很多学者对该地区的青海云杉冠层截留特征进行了研究,但是在进行集雨器布设的时候多采用随机或者规则采样方法,两种方法由于没有考虑到冠层结构的影响,所以不易具有很好的代表性。试图采用一种新的布设雨量筒的方法:即根据雨量筒上方冠层的郁闭度来确定雨量筒的布设位置,使其大致能够在郁闭度区间内均匀分布。同时在实验样地内还采用了规则采样方法布设了集雨槽,用来做对比分析。为了得到冠层郁闭度,实验采用遥感图像处理软件ENVI来对普通数码相机采集的冠层图像进行处理。利用数理统计原理和数学模型,对观测期间的34组降雨数据进行了综合分析,并且和规则格网采样的结果进行了对比。结果表明:林内的穿透降雨和郁闭度之间呈现非线性关系;平均林内穿透降雨量随降雨量的增加而增加,二者之间呈现良好的线性关系;在一定的降雨量范围内林冠截留量随降雨量的增加而增加,反之,林冠截留量减少;青海云杉林冠层的总截留降水率为22.2%;根据郁闭度来确定雨量筒的布设位置是可行的。     

Hedgerow impacts on soil-water transfer due to rainfall interception and root-water uptake

Hedgerow is one of the most important rural landscapes in the world, especially in Europe. Knowledge about the hydrological role of hedgerows is useful in many fields of study, such as hydrological modelling and rural landscape management. The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of a hedgerow on rainfall distribution, soil-water potential gradient, lateral water transfer and water balance. A hillslope with a hedgerow perpendicular to the slope was monitored. To evaluate hedgerow rainfall interception, rainfall was measured (hourly, daily, and by rainfall event) both next to and up to 16 m upslope and 12 m downslope perpendicularly away from the hedgerow. The strongest correlation between rainfall next to the hedgerow and rainfall at more distant points was obtained using data measured per rainfall event. The average percentage of rainfall intercepted equalled 28% for the leafed period and 12% for the leafless period. The impact of the hedgerow on spatial rainfall distribution was related to distance from the hedgerow and rainfall amount. Annual distribution of soil-water potential showed that the hedgerow influenced it up to 9 m upslope and 6 m downslope, the area in which most of the hedgerow's roots were observed. The soil was driest at the end of summer, which delayed soil rewetting during autumn in areas surrounding the hedgerow. Annual groundwater dynamics exhibited three distinct periods due to temporal rainfall distribution and, especially at the end of summer, root-water uptake. In addition, the total potential gradient showed that unsaturated flow was directed towards the hedgerow in summer and autumn. These results indicate that at the local scale hedgerows influences (1) spatial rainfall distribution, (2) soil rewetting, and (3) groundwater recharge, often at distances well beyond the hedgerow's drip line. Consequently, the processes involved in soil-water dynamics around hedgerows should be integrated into relevant hydrological models, especially for catchments with a dense hedgerow network. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Rainfall interception in a lower montane forest in Ecuador: effects of canopy properties

Rainfall interception in forests is influenced by properties of the canopy that tend to vary over small distances. Our objectives were: (i) to determine the variables needed to model the interception loss of the canopy of a lower montane forest in south Ecuador, i.e. the storage capacity of the leaves S and of the trunks and branches S_t, and the fractions of direct throughfall p and stemflow p_t; (ii) to assess the influence of canopy density and epiphyte coverage of trees on the interception of rainfall and subsequent evaporation losses. The study site was located on the eastern slope of the eastern cordillera in the south Ecuadorian Andes at 1900–2000 m above sea level. We monitored incident rainfall, throughfall, and stemflow between April 1998 and April 2001. In 2001, the leaf area index (LAI), inferred from light transmission, and epiphyte coverage was determined. The mean annual incident rainfall at three gauging stations ranged between 2319 and 2561 mm. The mean annual interception loss at five study transects in the forest varied between 591 and 1321 mm, i.e. between 25 and 52% of the incident rainfall. Mean S was estimated at 1·91 mm for relatively dry weeks with a regression model and at 2·46 mm for all weeks with the analytical Gash model; the respective estimates of mean S_t were 0·04 mm and 0·09 mm, of mean p were 0·42 and 0·63, and of mean p_t were 0·003 and 0·012. The LAI ranged from 5·19 to 9·32. Epiphytes, mostly bryophytes, covered up to 80% of the trunk and branch surfaces. The fraction of direct throughfall p and the LAI correlated significantly with interception loss (Pearson's correlation coefficient r = −0·77 and 0·35 respectively, n = 40). Bryophyte and lichen coverage tended to decrease S_t and vascular epiphytes tended to increase it, although there was no significant correlation between epiphyte coverage and interception loss. Our results demonstrate that canopy density influences interception loss but only explains part of the total variation in interception loss. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Hydrological characteristics of betel nut plantations on slopelands in central Taiwan / Caractéristiques hydrologiques de plantations de noix de bétel sur des versants du centre Taïwan

Abstract

Betel nut or betel palm (Areca catechu Linn.) has become a major cash crop in southern and central Taiwan since the mid-1980s. Many slopeland fruit orchards and forests have been converted to betel nut plantations. The total area of betel nut plantations has increased over the past 30 years, reaching a peak of 56 542 ha in 1997. The public and conservation groups frequently express great concern over the potential negative hydrological impacts of betel nut plantations on steep slopes. This investigation in central Taiwan examines the effects of hillslope betel nut plantations on hydrological processes. Differences in hydrological characteristics between plots planted with betel nut trees and those with other ground cover types were evaluated at two study sites. The tall, single-layer canopy and wide spacing between planted betel nut trees led to low interception losses, high throughfall and high net rainfall. Plots planted with betel nut trees had lower infiltration, higher surface runoff and higher erosion than forested sites. These hydrological characteristics can be related to factors such as crown cover, soil organic content and soil porosity in betel nut plantations. Streamflow data from three gauged watersheds with different proportions of total area planted with betel nut showed that where greater proportions of total area were planted with betel nut trees, there were higher annual streamflow/rainfall ratios, higher specific peak flows, steeper recessions and higher peak flow/baseflow ratios. The results from this study suggest that, in general, betel nut trees are less desirable from the soil and water conservation viewpoints than natural forests.     

A Linking Test that investigates the feasibility of inverse modelling: application to a simple rainfall interception model for Mt Gambier,southeast South Australia

Interception loss has an important influence on the water yield of forested areas. Nevertheless, in most studies stemflow is not measured, therefore the question of how to determine the feasibility of optimizing interception and stemflow parameters simultaneously by matching daily simulated throughfall to fortnightly measurements of cumulative throughfall is an important one. By applying a daily empirical interception model, a goodness fit of 2·2 mm/day is obtained between observed and simulated cumulative throughfall. However, by applying the simple but robust Linking Test, it was shown that the parameters are non‐unique and falsely linked, i.e. inter‐relationships between different vegetation parameter sets give similar throughfall but non‐unique net precipitation. The Linking Test investigates the causes of obtaining falsely linked parameters and shows that objective equifinality is not the source of the problem. Objective equifinality occurs when an inappropriate objective function is used. The Linking Test also shows that falsely linked parameters are not caused by measuring throughfall on a non‐daily basis (termed frequency sampling equifinality). By expanding the interception model to the second degree, it was found that the non‐uniqueness is due to the inherent nature of interception and stemflow functions that behave similarly and therefore can easily compensate each other (termed similarity equifinality). It is also shown that a simple daily empirical exponential interception model developed for conifers in the uplands of the United Kingdom is suitable to model interception in Pinus radiata plantations in the Mediterranean climate of southern Australia by using only daily gross precipitation data and two parameters. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Risk considerations for crown pillar stability assessment for mine closure planning

Evaluation of the long-term surface stability of crown pillars overlying underground mines is an important component of mine closure planning. The definition of a crown pillar, as well as a brief discussion of the assessment of the probability and consequence of crown pillar failure are given in this paper. Techniques for stability assessment using mechanistic, empirical and numerical simulation techniques are discussed. Consequence assessment is discussed, but is still subjective and difficult to quantify. Where crown pillars are suspected to be marginally stable or unstable either at the time of the investigation or over the long term, and where the consequence of failure is medium to high, the closure plan for the site must include proposed rehabilitation alternatives. Selection of the optimum solution depends largely upon financial considerations, but also upon the common public expectation that the result of mine closure planning be a permanent solution that does not restrict public access or future land use on the site.     

不同植被类型对土壤全氮随降雨径流流失的控制研究--以抚仙湖流域磷矿开采区为例

地表径流挟带土壤氮进入水体是造成水体面源污染的主要途径之一。本研究依区域年降雨量的差异，将抚仙湖磷矿开采区年降雨量分别为1200-1300mm和1000-1100min的区域划分为东大河流域磷矿区和帽天山磷矿区两个研究单元，通过设置野外径流小区，在自然降雨状态下对磷矿开采废弃地与矿区现有主要植被类型土壤营养元全氮随径流流失量进行比较研究。研究结果表明：降雨强度是矿山废弃地产流的关键因子，在大、暴雨状态下矿山废弃地土壤TN流失量远大于各植被类型，对抚仙湖水质产生不利的影响。各植被类型土壤TN随径流流失量主要取决于地表径流量，径流中TN含量对其影响不大，流失总量次序与径流总量次序相一致，表现为：灌草丛〉云南松灌丛〉云南松混交林〉华山松林〉竹林〉桉树林，除灌草丛外各植被类型均能对土壤TN流失起到较强的截留作用。     

祁连山大野口流域森林空间结构及水源涵养功能

林分空间结构及其水源涵养功能关系一直是森林生态水文学研究的热点.我们在祁连山大野口流域选取林分空间结构、林冠截留和河川径流等监测样地,采用特征参数统计分析、多度分析和相关系数分析等方法,研究了林分空间结构因子及其水源涵养功能之间的关系.结果表明:(1)祁连山大野口流域49块样地的2 819株青海云杉(Picea crassifolia)的胸径、树高、冠长、冠幅、冠幅面积的分布曲线比正态分布平缓,树龄、胸径断面的分布曲线比正态分布剧烈;径级从1～5 cm到26～30 cm、高度级从2～4 m到18～20 m、冠长级从2～4 m到12～14 m、冠幅级从2～4 m到4～6 m,其多度分别为89.4%、94.4%、77.8%和82.7%.(2)林冠截留年总量和平均截留率分别为139.1 mm和35.28％;(3)从相关系数分析来看,海拔对树高影响较大,对冠长影响较小,与其他因子不相关;坡向对冠幅影响最大,对冠长、树高影响较小;坡度对这些因子几乎没有影响.径级与多度、冠长与多度均符合三次多项式关系;胸径与树高、冠长、冠幅、树龄符合线性多元回归函数;雨量级与林冠截留率呈反比.本文可为流域林分空间结构特征与水源涵养功能之间的机理研究提供基础数据和参考资料.     

南海长棘海星物种有效性探讨

南海长棘海星暴发已严重威胁到该海域珊瑚礁生态系统健康,乃至整个南海生物多样性。针对南海长棘海星拉丁学名混用、中文名不统一的现状,我们采集了中沙群岛济猛暗沙海域长棘海星样品,结合长棘海星此前物种分类和分布的研究结果,对南海长棘海星物种有效性进行探讨。结果表明：所有长棘海星序列明显分为4个类群,各类群间遗传距离范围为0.087 5~0.104 7,达到了种间差异水平。南海长棘海星与长棘海星的太平洋种聚类到一起,实为太阳长棘海星(Acanthaster solaris),与其余3个种存在明显的种间差异。太阳长棘海星中2个支系间的遗传距离为0.005 3,在COⅠ基因层面属于种内差异。南海长棘海星物种有效性的研究结果为后续开展其遗传特征与适应性机制、种群分布与扩散机制、种群暴发机制等内容的研究提供科学依据。