Pushover-based seismic risk assessment and loss estimation of masonry buildings

A pushover-based seismic risk assessment and loss estimation methodology for masonry buildings is introduced. It enables estimation of loss by various performance measures such as the probability of exceeding a designated economic loss, the expected annual loss, and the expected loss given a seismic intensity. The methodology enables the estimation of the economic loss directly from the results of structural analysis, which combines pushover analysis and incremental dynamic analysis of an equivalent SDOF model. The use of the methodology is demonstrated by means of two variants of a three-storey masonry building both of which have the same geometry, but they are built, respectively, from hollow clay masonry (model H) and solid brick masonry (model S). The probability of collapse given the selected design earthquake corresponding to a return period of 475 years was found to be negligible for model H, which indicates the proper behaviour of such a structure when designed according to the current building codes. However, the corresponding probability of collapse of model S was very high (46%). The expected total loss given the design earthquake was estimated to amount to 28 000 € and 290 000 €, respectively, for models H and S. The expected annual loss per 100 m² of gross floor area was estimated to amount to 75 € and 191 €, respectively, for models H and S. For the presented examples, it was also observed that nonstructural elements contributed more than 50% of the total loss.     

Experimental investigation of seismic behaviour of the ancient Protiron monument model

Throughout history, dry-stone masonry structures have been strengthened with different types of metal connectors in order to increase their resistance which enabled their survival, especially in the seismically active area. One such example is the ancient Protiron monument placed in the Peristyle square of the Diocletian's Palace in Split, Croatia. The Protiron was built at the turn of the 3rd century as a stone masonry structure with dowels embedded between its base, columns, capitals and broad gable. The stone blocks in the broad gable were connected by metal clamps during restoration at the beginning of the 20th century. In order to study the seismic performance of the strengthened stone masonry structures, an experimental investigation of seismic behaviour of a physical model of the Protiron was performed on the shaking table. The model was designed as a true replica model in a length scale of 1:4 and exposed to representative earthquake with increasing intensities up to collapse. The tests provided a clear insight into system behaviour, damage mechanism and failure under intensive seismic load, especially into the efficiency of connecting elements, which had a special role in increasing seismic resistance and protection of the structure from collapse. Additionally, this experiment provided valuable data for verification and calibration of numerical models for strengthened stone masonry structures.     

Nonlinear analysis of masonry structures using fiber-section line elements

For seismic analysis of unreinforced masonry (URM) buildings characterized by a box-like behavior, a widely accepted model is based on the equivalent frame idealization of walls. The equivalent frame model uses 1D elements to represent the vertical piers and horizontal spandrels which are connected by rigid nodes. The mechanical characterization of the elements is one of the crucial aspects to predict reasonably the building seismic behavior. Through the comparison with pseudo-static and dynamic experimental tests performed on two-story full-scale buildings, this paper validates the frame modeling in the OpenSees framework, which includes a fiber-section force-based beam element for the axial-flexural behavior, coupled with a cyclic shear-deformation phenomenological law.     

Evaluation of force-based and displacement-based out-of-plane seismic assessment methods for unreinforced masonry walls through refined model simulations

The performance of force-based and displacement-based seismic assessment methods for the life-safety limit state check of out-of-plane loaded unreinforced masonry walls is evaluated on the basis of refined numerical simulations. For this purpose, a discrete element model of a vertically spanning wall is built and validated against experimental results from static and dynamic test conditions. The model is then analysed for a large range of wall configurations. For each configuration, a static pushover analysis and a series of incremental dynamic analyses are run, the latter permitting to determine the capacity of the wall under dynamic loading. The accuracy of the assessment methods in predicting the acceleration at which the walls collapse is evaluated. It is found that the displacement-based method is more accurate, robust, and safe than the force-based method. The comparison also shows that for walls characterised by a relatively high ratio of axial load to Euler's critical load, both assessment methods lead to an overestimation of the wall capacity. As a remedy, a modification to the methods based on a recently developed mechanical model is put forward and tested. For the force-based method, it is additionally suggested to set for walls with relatively high overburden ratios the behaviour factor equal to 1. To ensure reproducibility of this study, all input and output files of the numerical simulations are made publicly available.     

基于ECC的小雁塔抗震加固性能分析

高延性纤维增强水泥基复合材料(ECC)是一种高强度、高延性的新型建筑材料,在加固工程中具有广泛的应用前景。本文利用ECC的高延性和抗剪性,提出一种采用ECC面层加固小雁塔的保护方案,以提高古塔抗震性能;通过有限元软件ANSYS进行模拟分析,比较了小雁塔加固前后的地震响应。分析结果表明:采用ECC面层加固可显著增强塔身整体的延性和承载力,有效地提高塔体损伤容限,为ECC在古塔抗震加固的实际应用中提供借鉴,可作为古塔抗震保护的新途径。     

平推式滑坡中底滑面承压水渗流形式对其稳定性的影响

研究平推式滑坡中承压水渗流形式对滑坡稳定性的影响,有利于准确评价斜坡稳定性,对此类滑坡的成灾机制研究具有重要的理论指导意义。基于承压水渗流宽度变化规律,将平推式滑坡中底滑面承压水渗流形式分为辐射流和非辐射流。依据不同的渗流形式,构建了相应的平推式滑坡分析模型,结合地下水向河渠稳定运动相关理论,推导了不同模型中承压水的水头线方程和滑面上扬压力的计算公式,提出了扬压力的3种分布形式,并对平推式滑坡启动判据进行修正,最后结合滑坡实例分析了不同渗流形式对滑坡稳定性的影响规律。     

堆石料Gudehus-Bauer亚塑性本构模型改进及参数确定方法

研究了Gudehus-Bauer亚塑性本构模型和模型参数的求取方法。采用侧限压缩试验曲线求取模型参数颗粒硬度hs和指数n。根据模型方程的推导,建立了拟合指数 和 与围压之间的关系,并提出了新的拟合参数。考虑到堆石料具有明显的剪胀、剪缩性,在Gudehus-Bauer模型线性项中增加了主要控制体积应变项 ,以改善模型对堆石料体积应变曲线的描述。采用堆石料大型侧限压缩试验、常规三轴试验分别验证了新的拟合参数和改进后的Gudehus-Bauer亚塑性本构模型。与堆石料试验成果比较,提出的新拟合参数与改进后的Gudehus-Bauer亚塑性本构模型可以较好地模拟堆石料的应力-应变特性,并较好地改善了堆石料体变曲线的模拟结果。对改进后的模型作了常规三轴加、卸载模拟,模拟结果反映了改进的Gudehus-Bauer亚塑性本构模型具有一定的卸载适应性。     

深部开采底板隔水关键层受局部高承压水作用破坏理论分析

大量实测地质资料与防治水实践证实,深部煤层开采底板含水层存在大量的局部高承压水区域,在强开采扰动下极易诱发底板突水灾害。基于“下三带”、“关键层”理论,将局部高承压水与底板隔水关键层简化为圆筒力学模型,分析研究隔水关键层在局部高承压水作用下的屈服破坏机制,得到了隔水关键层发生屈服的4个临界水压值公式;对各临界水压值进行区间划分,分析不同区间隔水关键层的屈服状态,确定了局部高承压水致使隔水关键层屈服破坏两个阶段的水压判据平衡方程,得出了奥陶系顶部岩层作为隔水关键层剩余隔水能力的计算表达式,并反演得到了开采深度上限、下限公式。结合九龙矿深部开采实际,对所建力学模型进行了验证与应用,进而提出了防止局部高承压水致灾的相关措施,对实现深部煤层安全带压开采具有重要的理论指导意义。     

基于MatDEM的砂土侧限压缩试验离散元模拟研究

离散元法基于非连续介质力学理论,尤其适用于砂土等离散介质体的数值模拟研究。利用岩土体离散元模拟软件MatDEM的二次开发功能,研发了砂土侧限压缩试验三维离散元模拟器。对三个不同级配砂土试样进行了侧限压缩试验,并且进行了与之相对应的数值模拟,通过分析对比试验结果与数值模拟结果验证了所开发模拟器的有效性。模拟结果表明:离散元法可以很好地反应砂土压缩过程中的配位数变化;每个模拟样品中,粒径较小的单元受到较大的平均压力,导致平均位移较大;数值计算结果的主要误差是由离散元颗粒自身的泊松比引起的。研究突破了常规土力学研究方法的局限性,为今后岩土工程离散元模拟研究提供了参考。      

Seismic performance of masonry walls retrofitted with steel reinforced grout

An innovative solution for the seismic protection of existing masonry structures is proposed and investigated through shake table tests on a natural scale wall assemblage. After a former test series carried out without reinforcement, the specimen was retrofitted using Steel Reinforced Grout. The strengthening system comprises horizontal strips of ultra‐high strength steel cords, externally bonded to the masonry with hydraulic lime mortar, and connectors to transversal walls, applied within the thickness of the plaster layer. In order to assess the seismic performance of the retrofitted wall, natural accelerograms were applied with increasing intensity up to failure. Test results provide a deep understanding of the effectiveness of mortar‐based composites for improving the out‐of‐plane seismic capacity of masonry walls, in comparison with traditional reinforcements with steel tie‐bars. The structural implications of the proposed solution in terms of dynamic properties and damage development under earthquake loads are also discussed.Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.