Channel processes following land use changes in a degrading steep headwater stream in North Island, New Zealand

In headwater streams in steep land settings, narrow and steep valley floors provide closely coupled relationships between geomorphic components including hillslopes, tributary fans, and channel reaches. These relationships together with small catchment sizes result in episodic changes to the amount of stored sediment in channels. Major sediment inputs follow high magnitude events. Subsequent exponential losses via removal of material can be represented by a relaxation curve. The influence of hillslope and tributary processes on relaxation curves, and that of altered coupling relations between components, were investigated along a 1.3 km reach of a degrading channel in the 4.8 km² Weraamaia Catchment, New Zealand. Extensive deforestation in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, followed by invasion of scrubs and reforestation, induced changes to major erosion types from gully complexes to shallow landslides. Changes in the size and pattern of sediment slugs from 1938 to 2002 were analysed from air photographs tied to detailed field measurement. The rate and calibre of sediment flux changed progressively following substantive hillslope input in a storm in 1938. Subsequently, the channel narrowed and incised, decoupling tributary fans from the main stem, thereby scaling down the size of sediment slugs. As a consequence, the dominant influence on the behaviour of sediment slugs and associated relaxation processes, changed from tributary fans to the type and distribution of bedrock outcrops along the reach.     

Distribution of arsenic and other trace elements in the Holocene sediments of the Meghna River Delta, Bangladesh

Geochemical study of the Holocene sediments of the Meghna River Delta, Chandpur, Bangladesh was conducted to investigate the distribution of arsenic and related trace and major elements. The work carried out includes analyses of core sediments and provenance study by rare earth element (REE) analysis. Results showed that the cores pass downward from silty clays and clays into fine to medium sands. The uppermost 3 m of the core sediments are oxidized [average oxidation reduction potential (ORP) + 230 mV], and the ORP values gradually become negative with depths (−45 to −170 mV), indicating anoxic conditions prevail in the Meghna sediments. The REE patterns of all lithotypes in the study areas are similar and are comparable to the average upper continental crust. Arsenic and other trace elements (Pb, Zn, Cu, Ni, and Cr) have greater concentrations in the silts and clays compared to those in the sands. Positive correlation between As and Fe was found in the sediments, indicating As may be adsorbed on Fe oxides in aquifer sediments.     

Metal contamination of the environment by placer and primary gold mining in the Adola region of southern Ethiopia

Primary and placer gold mining sites in southern Ethiopia were studied to see the contribution of mining to the accumulation of metals in different environmental media. Sediment, water and plant samples were analyzed for Al, Mn, Fe, As, Ni, Cr, Cu, Co, Pb, W, Sb, Mo, Zn and V. Water parameters (pH, Eh, TDS, anions and cations) were also measured. The sediment analyses results show that the most abundant metals are Ni (average 224.7 mg/kg), Cr (199 mg/kg), Cu (174.2 mg/kg), V (167.3 mg/kg), Zn (105.5 mg/kg), Pb (61.5 mg/kg) and As (59.7 mg/kg) in the primary gold mining sites while the placer sites show high concentration of V (average 301.2 mg/kg), Cr (260.4 mg/kg), Zn (179 mg/kg), Ni (113.4 mg/kg), Cu (46.7 mg/kg), As (32.2 mg/kg) and Co (31 mg/kg). The metals Cu, Ni, W, Cr, As and Pb in primary and Sb, W, Cr, Ni, Zn, As and Mo in placer gold mining sites have geoaccumulation indexes (I _geo) from one to four indicating considerable accumulation of these metals. Waters from both primary and placer mining sites are near neutral to alkaline. Arsenic (average 92.8 μg/l), Ni (276.6 μg/l), Pb (18.7 μg/l), Sb (10.7 μg/l), Mn (1 mg/l), Fe (8.3 mg/l) and Al (23.8 mg/l) exceeded the guideline value for drinking water. Plants show high concentration of Cr (average 174.5 mg/kg), Ni (163.5 mg/kg), Zn (96 mg/kg) and W (48 mg/kg). Zinc, W, Mo, Ni and Cr show the maximum biological absorption coefficient (BAC) ranging 0.4–1.7, 0.1–104.6, 1.1–2.6, 0.2–1.6 and 0.2–3.6, respectively, and the results suggest bioaccumulation of these elements in plants. The minerals especially sulfides in the ore aggregate are the ultimate source of the metals. The release of the metals into the environmental media is facilitated (in addition to normal geologic processes) by human activities related to gold mining.     

Geochemical characterisation and erosion stability of fine‐grained groyne field sediments of the Middle Elbe River

Because of the significant reduction of flow velocity relative to the main current there is an accumulation of sediment material in the centre of the groyne fields over time (years to decades) up to a maximum of 1.5 m. Based on the element‐ and compound‐specific depth functions of this fine‐grained material with high organic matter content the sedimentation history of the Elbe River sediments concerning the environmentally relevant nutrients and pollutants can be reconstructed. It could be shown that the fresh sediments are less polluted than the deeper older ones. During the extreme flood of the river Elbe in August 2002 the critical erosion shear stress in the groyne fields was high enough to remobilise a considerable portion of the sediment depot. The hazard to the environment is high due to the fact that a significant part of the remobilised polluted sediments was distributed over the recent floodplain which is normally used as pasture. Thus these groyne field sediments represent a temporary danger for the water quality of the river Elbe. But the hazard of the solids sedimented in the recent floodplain of the river can be viewed as long‐lasting.     

On the sensitivity of the sedimentary system in the East Frisian Wadden Sea to sea-level rise and wave-induced bed shear stress

The paper addresses the individual and collective contribution of different forcing factors (tides, wind waves, and sea-level rise) to the dynamics of sediment in coastal areas. The results are obtained from simulations with the General Estuarine Transport Model coupled with a sediment transport model. The wave-induced bed shear stress is formulated using a simple model based on the concept that the turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) associated with wind waves is a function of orbital velocity, the latter depending on the wave height and water depth. A theory is presented explaining the controls of sediment dynamics by the TKE produced by tides and wind waves. Several scenarios were developed aiming at revealing possible trends resulting from realistic (observed or expected) changes in sea level and wave magnitude. The simulations demonstrate that these changes not only influence the concentration of sediment, which is very sensitive to the magnitude of the external forcing, but also the temporal variability patterns. The joint effect of tides and wave-induced bed shear stress revealed by the comparison between theoretical results and simulations is well pronounced. The intercomparison between different scenarios demonstrates that the spatial patterns of erosion and deposition are very sensitive to the magnitude of wind waves and sea-level rise. Under a changing climate, forcing the horizontal distribution of sediments adjusts mainly through a change in the balance of export and import of sediment from the intertidal basins. The strongest signal associated with this adjustment is simulated North of the barrier islands where the evolution of sedimentation gives an integrated picture of the processes in tidal basins.     

Laboratory study on sediment diffusion and deposition into blind channels

Any waterway with one end closed and the other open is generally called a blind channel. The main flow tends to expand, separate, and cause circulation at the mouth of blind channels. The main flow continuously transfers momentum and sediment into the circulation region through the turbulent mixing region (TMR) between them, thus leading to a large amount of sediment deposition in the blind channels. This paper experimentally investigated the properties of the water flow and sediment diffusion in TMR, demonstrating that both water flow and sediment motion in TMR approximately coincide with a similar structure as in the free mixing layer induced by a jet. The similarity functions of flow velocity and sediment concentration are then assumed, based on observation, and the resulting calculation of these functions is substantially facilitated. For the kind of low velocity flow system of blind channels with a finite width, a simple formula for the sediment deposition rate in blind channels is established by analyzing the gradient of crosswise velocity and sediment concentration in TMR.     

黄河的输沙量：过去、现在和将来——距今15万年以来的黄河泥沙收支表

黄河于150 ka BP切穿三门峡，东流入海。黄河泥沙90%来自黄土高原。黄土高原土地利用和植被的变化对黄河输沙有决定性的影响。15万年以来，黄河进入华北平原的泥沙约70 000×108 t，其中10 ka BP以前占80%。10 ka BP以后的输沙量中，最后1040年黄土高原滥垦时期占60%。黄河泥沙的归宿，建造华北大平原占73%，流入海洋占26%。现在，黄河每年流入北黄海的泥沙不足0.2×108  t，其输运主要受海洋环流系统的影响。现在黄海每年向东海输运悬浮沉积物0.2×108~0.3×108 t，主要为废黄河三角洲及水下三角洲受侵蚀再悬浮的黄河泥沙。1996—2000年黄河下游连年断流，利津站的年径流量和输沙量只有1950—1979年30年平均的19%左右。今后20~30年内，由于气候变暖、工业、城市等引黄水量增加，黄河的入海泥沙量仍将偏少。     

A comparison of anthropogenic mercury pollution in Kastela Bay (Croatia) with pristine estuaries in Ore (Sweden) and Krka (Croatia)

Anthropogenic mercury pollution was studied in Kastela Bay (Croatia), 10 years after chloralkaline plant (PVC) stopped production. The concentration of total mercury determined in sediments which are composed mainly of calcite and quartz, are in the range 14,280-30,400 ng/g. The values are higher than reported in the literature for Elbe and Seine estuaries and also above 25,000 ng/g used for criterion in remediation project in Minamata Bay. The concentration of methylmercury 6.05-36.74 ng/g are typical for slightly to highly contaminated estuarine sediments. The low ratio of methylmercury to total mercury found in sediments of Kastela Bay is in the range 0.04-0.18%. It can be explained that in this region predominate conditions which do not promote in-situ methylation. Sediments were found to be highly anoxic. Concentrations of total mercury in unfiltered surface waters are in the range 69-145 ng/l and in unfiltered bottom waters in the range 230-1,418 ngl(-1). High concentrations found in bottom waters suggest that either resuspension or partial dissolution of sediments takes place. An experiment performed on filtered and unfiltered waters showed that about 85% of total mercury in surface water and almost 100% in bottom water was retained on 45 microm filters. To demonstrate contrasts, two pristine estuaries from norths and south Europe were studied. Silicious sediments of Ore estuary (Sweden) and calcareous sediments of Krka estuary (Croatia) have total mercury concentrations close to accepted background level. The ratio of methylmercury to total mercury is < or = 1% in all samples with one exception. The highest observed ratio (2.70%) was in the surface sediment from E2 station in Krka estuary measured in March 2000. This location is suitable for studying methylmercury formation in pristine environment.     

Spatial variability of metals in the inter-tidal sediments of the Medway Estuary,Kent, UK

Concentrations of major and trace metals were determined in eight sediment cores collected from the inter-tidal zone of the Medway Estuary, Kent, UK. Metal associations and potential sources have been investigated using principal component analysis. These data provide the first detailed geochemical survey of recent sediments in the Medway Estuary. Metal concentrations in surface sediments lie in the mid to lower range for UK estuarine sediments indicating that the Medway receives low but appreciable contaminant inputs. Vertical metal distributions reveal variable redox zonation across the estuary and historically elevated anthropogenic inputs. Peak concentrations of Cu, Pb and Zn can be traced laterally across the estuary and their positions indicate periods of past erosion and/or non-deposition. However, low rates of sediment accumulation do not allow these sub surface maxima to be used as accurate geochemical marker horizons. The salt marshes and inter-tidal mud flats in the Medway Estuary are experiencing erosion, however the erosion of historically contaminated sediments is unlikely to re-release significant amounts of heavy metals to the estuarine system.     

Pore water testing and analysis: the good,the bad,and the ugly

The increasingly common practice of collecting and assessing sediment pore water as a primary measure of sediment quality is reviewed. Good features of this practice include: pore water is a key exposure route for some organisms associated with sediments; pore water testing eliminates particle size effects; pore water analyses and tests can provide useful information regarding contamination and pollution. Bad features include: pore water is not the only exposure route; pore water tests lack chemical or biological realism: their "sensitivity" relative to other tests may be meaningless due to manipulation and laboratory artifacts; many sediment and surface dwelling organisms are not directly influenced by pore water. Bad features can become ugly if: other exposure pathways are not considered (for toxicity or bioaccumulation); manipulation techniques are not appropriate; pore water tests are inappropriately linked to population-level effects. Pore water testing and analyses can be effective tools provided their limitations are well understood by researchers and managers.