Origin of the sedimentary deposits of the Naracoorte Caves, South Australia

The origin of the sediments located in the Naracoorte Caves (South Australia) was investigated via the analysis of strontium isotope ratios (⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr), elemental geochemistry, and mineralogy. Sedimentary deposits located in Robertson, Wet, Blanche and several other chambers in Victoria Cave are all variable mixes of fine sand and coarse silts, which display similar and consistent strontium isotope ratios (0.717–0.725). This suggests that over the 400 ka time frame that these deposits span there has been minimal variation in the source of the clastic sediments. Increased strontium concentrations for these cave sediments correspond with increasing silt content, yet there is no correlation between ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios and silt content. This implies that the silt-sized component of the sediments is the main contributor of strontium to the cave sediments. Comparisons of ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr with regional surficial deposits show a significant correlation between the cave sediments (avg: 0.7228; n = 27), the fine silt lunettes of the Bool Lagoon area (avg: 0.7224; n = 4), the sandy A horizons of the Coonawarra Red Brown Earths (RBEs; avg: 0.726; n = 5), and Holocene age podsolic sand deposits (0.723). These data suggest that there has been substantial flux from this group of deposits to the caves, as would be expected considering prevailing winds. This relationship is further supported by a strong correlation between many trace elements, including Ti, Zr, Ce, and Y; however, variations in clay mineralogy suggest that the fine silt-dominated lunettes and Padthaway RBEs were not significant contributors to the cave deposits. Hence, the detritus entering the caves was more than likely from areas proximal to the cave entrance and was dominated by medium grain-sized materials. Major regional deposits, including the coarser-grained, calcite-rich Bridgewater Formation sands, basalts from the lower SE, Padthaway Horst granites, Gambier limestone, and metamorphics from the Adelaide geosyncline show minimal correlation in ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios, elemental geochemistry, and mineralogy with the cave sediments, and are discounted as significant sources. In comparison, ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios for the Coorong silty sands (0.717–0.724), Lower Murray sands (0.727–0.730), and the medium size silt component of the Murray–Darling River system (0.71–0.72), compare favourably with the cave sediments. This relationship is further supported by similarities in elemental chemistry and mineralogy. Thus, much of the strontium-rich silt that is now located in the Naracoorte Cave sediments likely originated from the Murray–Darling basin. Over time, this material has been transported to the SE of South Australia, where it mixed with the medium sand component of the regressive dune ridge sequence, locally derived organic matter, limestone fragments, and fossil material to produce the unique deposits that we see evident in many of the chambers of the Naracoorte Cave system today.     

Investigations of subsurface flow constructed wetlands and associated geomaterial resources in the Akumal and Reforma regions,Quintana Roo,Mexico

Subsurface flow constructed wetlands in the village of Akumal, Quintana Roo, Mexico were surveyed to determine the general status of the wetland systems and provide baseline information for long term monitoring and further study. Twenty subsurface flow wetlands were surveyed and common problems observed in the systems were overloading, poor plant cover, odor, and no secondary containment. Bulk mineral composition of aggregate from two subsurface flow constructed wetlands was determined to consist solely of calcite using bulk powder X-ray diffraction. Some soil structure is developed in the aggregate and aggregate levels in wetlands drop at an estimated rate between 3 and 10 cm/year for overloaded wetlands owing to dissolution. Mineral composition from fresh aggregate samples commonly is a mixture of calcite and aragonite. Trace amounts of Pb, Zn, Co, and Cr were observed in fresh aggregate. Coefficients of permeability (k) varied from 0.006 to 0.027 cm/s with an average values being 0.016 cm/s. Grain size analysis of fresh aggregate samples indicates there are unimodal and multimodal size distributions in the samples with modes in the coarse and fine sand being common. Investigations of other geologic media from the Reforma region indicate that a dolomite with minor amounts of Fe-oxide and palygorskite is abundant and may be a better aggregate source that the current materials used. A Ca-montmorillonite bed was identified in the Reforma region as well and this unit is suitable to serve as a clay liner to prevent leaks for new and existing wetland systems. These newly discovered geologic resources should aid in the improvement of subsurface flow constructed wetlands in the region. Although problems do exist in these wetlands with respect to design, these systems represent a successful implementation of constructed wetlands at a community level in developing regions.     

Crystallisation of sodium sulfate: supersaturation and metastable phases

Crystallisation of sodium sulfate solutions by evaporation under controlled climatic conditions has revealed the existence of crystalline hydrated sodium sulfate salts not previously reported. The sodium sulfate phase crystallising and the concentration of the solution at the point of crystallisation depends on the climatic conditions (temperature and evaporation rate). During the rehydration of the anhydrous sodium sulfate phase, thenardite, another previously unreported phase was formed prior to the nucleation of the stable phase, mirabilite Na₂SO₄ · 10H₂O. The addition of organic inhibitors changes both the crystallisation and the rehydration behavior in this system.     

Surface carbonate and land-derived clastic marine sediments from southern Chile: mineralogical and geochemical investigation

Surface carbonate and land-derived deposits in the sea off southern Chile were investigated for their mineralogical and geochemical composition. The data were related to environmental features and compared with those of similar temperate and polar carbonate deposits from Tasmania, New Zealand, Arctica, and Antarctica. The mineralogy of the siliciclastic fraction is typical of cold areas and is mainly composed of chlorite, mica, quartz, feldspars and amphibole. The CaCO₃ content varies from 30 to 90%; carbonate mineralogy is made up of low-Mg calcite, high-Mg calcite and minor amounts of aragonite. The Ca, Mg, Sr, Fe, and Mn contents of bulk carbonates and some selected skeletal hard parts are comparable to those of carbonates from Tasmania. The elemental composition is mainly related to carbonate mineralogy, skeletal components, and seawater conditions. The δ¹³C and δ¹⁸O values of carbonates are positive, and their field falls between the “seafloor diagenesis” and “upwelling water” trend lines, because the sediments are likely to be in equilibrium with waters of Antarctic origin. The mineralogical, elemental, and isotopic compositions of carbonates from southern Chile show better similarities with the “temperate” carbonates from Tasmania and New Zealand than with the “polar” carbonates from Arctica and Antarctica. Carbonate deposition is allowed by the low terrigenous input, the low SPM concentration and, probably, the upwelling of seawater from Antarctica.     

兴蒙造山带东南缘黄松群中压型变质作用及其构造意义:岩石学、矿物学和年代学证据

本文报道了兴蒙造山带东南缘黄松群代表性岩石的岩相学、矿物化学成分和黑云母40Ar/39Ar定年结果,以确定它们的变质作用类型、变质温压条件、变质时代及其构造意义。岩相学研究表明黄松群主要由黑云斜长片麻岩、二云斜长片岩、斜长角闪片岩等代表性岩石以及不同类型的糜棱岩所组成。前者往往呈规模较小的面状分布,反映了主期区域动热变质作用,后者主要呈条带状分布,反映了后期低温动力变质作用的叠加与改造。此外,在与侵入体接触处产出的红柱石角岩反映了局部接触变质作用的存在。对黄松群代表性岩石的温压条件计算结果表明,该群主期变质作用的温压范围分别为525~597℃和5.8~7.5kb,地热梯度集中在21~27℃/km,揭示出黄松群中压型(绿帘角闪岩相-低角闪岩相)变质作用的存在。对含石榴二云斜长片岩中黑云母40Ar/39Ar定年结果为239.22±3.02Ma,而黑云母糜棱岩中黑云母的40Ar/39Ar定年结果为193.91±2.16Ma,结合黑云母的封闭温度和研究区已有的年代学资料,认为前者反映黄松群中压型变质作用的时代为晚二叠世-早三叠世,而后者反映黄松群经历的后期低温动力变质作用发生在早侏罗世。结合区域上同时代变质作用、岩浆作用以及沉积建造特征和区域构造演化历史,认为黄松群晚二叠世-早三叠世中压型变质作用与华北板块与西伯利亚板块碰撞拼合的地球动力学背景有关,该期变质作用标志着古亚洲洋东段的最终闭合已经完成。     

In search of the lost zinc: A lesson from the Jabali (Yemen) nonsulfide zinc deposit

The Jabali nonsulfide zinc deposit, located northeast of Sana'a (Yemen) contains a geological resource of 12.6 million tonnes of ore grading 8.9% zinc, 1.2% lead and 68 g/t silver, with a projected recovery of ca. 80% zinc. The primary sulfide deposit shows features of both Mississippi Valley and Carbonate Replacement types, and is believed to have been formed by circulating hydrothermal fluids, either associated with Mesozoic rifting, or generated from Tertiary igneous activity, developed in the area during the Red Sea crustal extension. An extension of this phenomenon should have also triggered the late uplift, which favored the oxidation of sulfides. Ore deposition has been accompanied by several dolomitization phases, some of which have been considered strictly hydrothermal.     

Physical properties of sediment from the Mount Elbert Gas Hydrate Stratigraphic Test Well, Alaska North Slope

This study characterizes cored and logged sedimentary strata from the February 2007 BP Exploration Alaska, Department of Energy, U.S. Geological Survey (BPXA-DOE-USGS) Mount Elbert Gas Hydrate Stratigraphic Test Well on the Alaska North Slope (ANS). The physical-properties program analyzed core samples recovered from the well, and in conjunction with downhole geophysical logs, produced an extensive dataset including grain size, water content, porosity, grain density, bulk density, permeability, X-ray diffraction (XRD) mineralogy, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), and petrography.This study documents the physical property interrelationships in the well and demonstrates their correlation with the occurrence of gas hydrate. Gas hydrate (GH) occurs in three unconsolidated, coarse silt to fine sand intervals within the Paleocene and Eocene beds of the Sagavanirktok Formation: Unit D-GH (614.4 m-627.9 m); unit C-GH1 (649.8 m-660.8 m); and unit C-GH2 (663.2 m-666.3 m). These intervals are overlain by fine to coarse silt intervals with greater clay content. A deeper interval (unit B) is similar lithologically to the gas-hydrate-bearing strata; however, it is water-saturated and contains no hydrate.In this system it appears that high sediment permeability (k) is critical to the formation of concentrated hydrate deposits. Intervals D-GH and C-GH1 have average “plug” intrinsic permeability to nitrogen values of 1700 mD and 675 mD, respectively. These values are in strong contrast with those of the overlying, gas-hydrate-free sediments, which have k values of 5.7 mD and 49 mD, respectively, and thus would have provided effective seals to trap free gas. The relation between permeability and porosity critically influences the occurrence of GH. For example, an average increase of 4% in porosity increases permeability by an order of magnitude, but the presence of a second fluid (e.g., methane from dissociating gas hydrate) in the reservoir reduces permeability by more than an order of magnitude.     

The 0.7-5.3 μm IR spectra of Mercury and the Moon: Evidence for high-Ca clinopyroxene on Mercury

We present infrared spectra of Mercury and the Moon in the wavelength range 0.7-5.3 μm obtained with the SpeX spectrograph at the NASA Infrared Telescope Facility. The spectra were acquired from pole and terminator locations of Mercury's surface and of Mersenius C and the Copernicus central peak on the Moon. Spectra of both bodies were measured in close temporal succession and were reduced in the same manner with identical calibration stars to minimize differences in the reduction process. The Copernicus spectra display the expected absorption features due to mafic minerals in the near infrared and show spectral features in the SiO combination/overtone vibrational band region above 4 μm. The spectra of Mercury from longitude 170° and north and south mid-latitudes display a 1-μm absorption band indicative of high-Ca clinopyroxene, while a spectrum from longitude 260° and northern mid-latitudes does not. The Mercury spectra show a broad feature of low emittance over the full 3-5 μm thermal infrared region, but no narrow features in this spectral range. The longitude 260° spectrum shows excess thermal emission around 5 μm attributable to the existence of a thermal gradient in the insolated dayside regolith. The thermal-IR spectra suggest a significant difference in the compositional and/or structural properties of Mercury and the Moon that may be due to grain size, absorption coefficient, or the magnitude of near-surface thermal gradients. The results indicate that the composition of Mercury's surface is heterogeneous on regional scales, and that the near infrared wavelength range provides more discriminative information on the surface composition than the 2-4 μm region, where the solar reflected and thermally emitted radiation contribute approximately equally to the observed flux of these bodies.     

Near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy of Ca-rich clinopyroxenes and prospects for remote spectral characterization of planetary surfaces

We present results of laboratory near-infrared reflectance studies of a set of calcic pyroxenes with comparable calcium contents (Wo_45-50) but variable iron content and oxidation states. This new dataset complements earlier published data (Cloutis and Gaffey, 1991, J. Geophys. Res. 96, 22809-28826, and references therein). In particular, our new spectra extend the scarce available spectral data on chemically analyzed Fe-rich high-Ca clinopyroxenes. We attempted to interpret the spectral behavior of our samples in terms of chemistry and coordination site occupancies. Tentatively, we conclude that Fe-rich calcic pyroxenes have very low contents of Fe²⁺ in the M2 sites and belong to the spectral type A lacking the 2-μm band. This may be due to high Ca and Mn contents in these pyroxenes. Fe-poor high-Ca pyroxenes are more spectrally variable. In general, they tend to belong to the spectral type B with two major bands near 1 and 2 μm, unless the samples have high Fe³⁺/Fe²⁺ ratios or are rich in Mn and Ca. Some of them (including unusual meteorite Angra dos Reis) are of type B despite very high Ca contents. We applied the Modified Gaussian Model (MGM) to characterize three major Fe²⁺ absorption bands in the 1-μm region of the spectra of Ca-rich pyroxenes. Only the band due to Fe²⁺ in the M1 coordination site near 1.15 μm may be potentially useful to estimate the Fe content in calcic pyroxenes on remotely-sensed surfaces of Solar System bodies. The spectral variability of basaltic meteorites (angrites) that are rich in calcic pyroxenes is also discussed. The presence of spectral type A calcic pyroxenes in these meteorites complicates unambiguous identification of olivine in asteroid spectra.     

Ferromanganese nodules of freshwater reservoirs of Ol’khon Island (Baikal) and the Kulunda Plain (West Siberia)

Morphology and mineralogical and geochemical compositions of freshwater ferromanganese nodules of Ol’khon Island (Sasa Formation) and Kulunda Plain (Lake Porozhnee) were studied. The study has shown rhythmic structures of the nodules, formed by macro- and microlayers with mineralized microflora. The layers are composed of either crystalline Mn mineral phases and finely dispersed Fe phases (Lake Porozhnee) or, on the contrary, crystalline goethite and X-ray amorphous Mn phases (Ol’khon Island). Separation of Mn and Fe mineral phases in the nodules proceeded during their formation and diagenesis. The freshwater nodules show both high (Lake Porozhnee) and low (Ol’khon Island) Mn/Fe ratios. The predominance of Fe phase in the Ol’khon nodules accounts for their high contents of REE, including Ce. The Porozhnee nodules grew, most likely, more rapidly, which is reflected in their low REE contents and Ce anomaly. The examined chemical and mineral compositions, textures, and structures of the nodules testify to the low-temperature hydrothermal source of their ore substance.