Recently exposed vegetation reveals Holocene changes in the extent of the Quelccaya Ice Cap, Peru

Radiocarbon dating of well-preserved, in-place vegetation exposed by the retreating Quelccaya Ice Cap of southeastern Peru constrains the last time the ice cap's extent was smaller than at present. Seventeen plant samples from two sites along the central western margin collectively date to 4700 and 5100 cal yr BP and strongly indicate that current ice cap retreat is unprecedented over the past ∼ 5 millennia. Seventeen vegetation samples interbedded in a nearby clastic sedimentary sequence suggest ice-free conditions at this site from ∼ 5200 to at least ∼ 7000 cal yr BP, and place minimum constraint on early- to mid-Holocene ice cap extent.     

The 2nd century AD earthquake in central Italy: archaeoseismological data and seismotectonic implications

The 2nd century AD earthquake in central Italy is only known by an epigraph that mentions restorations to a damaged weighing-house at the ancient locality of Pagus Interpromium. The available seismic catalogues report this event with the conventional date of 101 AD, a magnitude M _aw of 6.3, and an epicentral location at the village of San Valentino in Abruzzo Citeriore, in the province of Pescara. In order to improve the knowledge of the damage pattern, we gathered all the archaeological data collected during modern excavations at sites located in the area, which were presumably struck by the earthquake. This information is mainly represented by (1) stratigraphic units due to the sudden collapse of buildings over still frequented floors; (2) stratigraphic units demonstrating restoration or re-building of edifices; (3) stratigraphic units formed as the result of the abandonment of sites or of their lack of frequentation for decades or centuries. Only stratigraphic evidence consistent with an earthquake occurrence during the 2nd century AD has been considered. The most recent archaeological material found in a collapsed unit is a coin of Antoninus Pius, dated at 147–148 AD. This may represent a post quem date very close to the occurrence of the earthquake. The gathered information, plus the stratigraphic data that excluded the earthquake occurrence at some sites, has allowed us to roughly delineate an area of possible damage, including the Sulmona Plain and surrounding areas. Comparisons between the possible 2nd century damage distribution and (i) the damage patterns of more recent historical events that have struck the investigated area, (ii) the distribution of virtual intensities obtained by simulating an earthquake having an epicenter in the Sulmona Plain and applying an intensity attenuation relationship and (iii) a shaking scenario obtained by modelling the activation of the major active fault of the Sulmona Plain area (the Mt. Morrone fault) have revealed consistency between the ancient earthquake and the activation of this fault. Since no other historical events can be attributed to this active fault, we conclude that the time that has elapsed since the last fault activation should be in the order of 1,850 years, i.e. a time span that is very close to the recurrence interval of Apennine seismogenic sources. Moreover, considering the fault length, the causative source may be responsible for earthquakes with M up to 6.6–6.7. The comparison between the presumed 2nd century damage and the shaking scenario suggests that the magnitude mentioned is consistent with the presumed effects of the ancient earthquake. Finally, considering that Sulmona (the most important town in the region investigated) is located in the middle of the Mt. Morrone fault hanging wall, we consider it as the probable epicentral area. Therefore, to summarise the information on the 2nd century AD earthquake, we can conclude that (i) it occurred shortly after 147–148 AD; (ii) a magnitude M _w 6.6–6.7 can be attributed to it and (iii) the probable macroseismic epicentral area was Sulmona.     

Evaluation of erosion in equipped basins: preliminary results of a comparison between the Gavrilovic model and direct measurements of sediment transport

The study of the hydrologic characters of a water course permits the correct management of the corresponding basin and a greater control over the water resources of the whole basin; therefore, a suitable planning and maintenance of the necessary interventions along the water course, especially in proximity of the outlet to sea, becomes necessary. An evaluation of the solid transport allows an estimation of the erosion to which the basin is subjected as a result of the river flow, and further helps to prevent hydrologic disasters in the possible risk zones. Among the various experimental techniques in use for measuring the suspended-solid transport, nuclear methods have been preferably used in this research, which are based on monitoring the concentration of the suspended sediments. The suspended-solid concentration is detected by the attenuation of radioactivity emitted by a source of ²⁴¹Am dipped in the water. This attenuation, due to the presence of the sediments transported in great amounts during events of flood is measured using a scintillation detector made up of a crystal of NaI(Tl). With appropriate calibration curves built both in the laboratory and in the field, it is possible to trace the amount of suspended-solid transport in a certain river section that is located in the proximity of the river outlet. This methodology, applied to different equipped basins in Italy and Africa, is particularly useful for small and medium water courses (similar to those of the Apennine ranges in Italy), allowing an assessment of the erosion in the whole watershed. In this note, the techniques used are introduced in detail, with particular attention to the instrument calibration, and the numerical results obtained for some basins in the Marche region (Italy) are compared with some empirical formulae used in previous reports for the calculation of erosion.     

A map of autumn precipitation for the third millennium BP in the Eastern Iberian Peninsula from charcoal carbon isotopes

Carbon isotope composition (δ¹³C) in tree-rings has become routinely used in palaeoclimatic research for the assessment of changes in plant water availability in seasonally dry climates. However, the distribution of long tree-ring records around the world is very limited. Alternatively, the original climate signal of wood δ¹³C is well preserved in fossil charcoal and, accordingly, charcoal δ¹³C can be used to quantify past changes in water availability (e.g. precipitation). We report a case study on spatial palaeoclimate reconstruction which aims to characterize the transition between Bronze and Iron Ages, the so-called Iron Age Cold Epoch (ca. 900–300 BCE), using charcoals of Quercus ilex/coccifera from a set of 11 contemporary archaeological sites of eastern Spain. Climatic inferences were obtained after calibrating a linear model predicting seasonal precipitation from δ¹³C of Q. ilex wood samples obtained across a rainfall gradient. The best regression model corresponded to September–December (autumn) precipitation (P_aut), in agreement with the fact that Q. ilex is able to exploit previous-year water reserves thanks to very effective water uptake. Subsequently, we estimated P_aut from the δ¹³C of fossil charcoal to infer spatial patterns in water availability. Overall, estimated past P_aut was about 19% higher (296 mm) than present-time values averaged across archaeological sites (249 mm). However, a clear geographic pattern of differences in precipitation could be observed in which the inner continental regions of eastern Spain were characterized by more humid conditions in the past, whereas the coastal strip of the Mediterranean Sea barely differed in past and present P_aut values. The quite uniform distribution of archaeological sites over eastern Spain allowed development of contour maps of absolute and relative (to present) past P_aut using gridded interpolation methods implemented in a GIS, highlighting the potential of this approach for reconstructing high-resolution spatial patterns of past climate.     

稻城冰帽区更新世冰川测年研究

通过ESR和14C测年对典型冰碛物进行直接和间接定年, 并结合冰碛地貌形态和位置, 确定稻城冰帽区自中更新世以来经历了6次较大规模的冰川前进, 依次与MIS-16、 MIS-6、 MIS-3中期、 MIS-2早期、全球意义上的末次盛冰期(MIS-2)和冰后期对应, 冰川作用规模基本上逐渐减小.最早、规模最大的冰川作用发生在570 ka BP前后, 意味着本段高原面在570 ka BP之前已进入了冰冻圈, 且自那时起, 该区经历了较大规模的抬升作用. 全新世到来之前, 稻城冰帽全部消失了, 它是一个随着气候冷暖波动逐渐后退的过程, 不是以死冰的方式突然消亡. 值得注意的是, 末次冰期大间冰阶中期(MIS-3b)的冰川前进规模超过了末次盛冰期(MIS-2), 表明末次冰期最盛期在全球范围内的不同步性. 其不同步的原因可能是: MIS-3中期, 北半球夏季太阳辐射相对较低, 但其海陆分布状况能够诱发较强的南亚夏季风, 它给以季风降水为主要补给的海洋性冰川区带来较多的降水, 结合该时段较低的温度, 有利于冰川较大规模前进; 末次盛冰期时, 气候严寒, 但夏季风微弱, 降水稀少, 冰川平衡线下降程度反而不及MIS-3b.     

Interannual and seasonal behavior of Martian residual ice-cap albedo

The Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter (MOLA), functioning as a high-resolution radiometer, has observed several appearances of the Martian residual ice caps. We examine these data to quantify both seasonal behavior and interannual differences. The northern residual cap (NRC) was found to be mostly stable with the exception of one, previously identified, region of strong variability. Interannual change in the extent of the NRC appears to be small and reversible on timescales of 1 or 2 years. The NRC has an elaborate seasonal evolution of albedo. Annuli of fine-grained CO₂ and water frost, which track the inner and outer edges of the seasonal CO₂ cap, cause large temporary brightenings. The NRC albedo is stable from just after solstice to L_s 150°, after which albedo decreases steadily. This late-summer darkening can be explained by shadowing within the rough topography of the NRC, leading to a lower limit on topographic relief of 80 cm. The southern residual cap (SRC) appears stable in extent. As has been previously discovered, its seasonal frost albedo behavior appears to be correlated with insolation. However, residual CO₂ appears not to share this characteristic; we use this behavioral difference to infer net deposition of CO₂ ice on the SRC during 1 out of 3 years. Uncharacteristically, the SRC abruptly darkens at L_s 320° in 1 Martian year (year beginning April 2002). Circumstantial evidence suggests atmospheric scattering by dust is responsible. The 2001 global dust-storm appears, either, to have had no effect on the polar cap albedos, or, resulted in slightly brighter ice deposits.     

The texture of condensed CO2 on the martian polar caps

The widespread deposition of CO₂ ice on the martian polar caps in winter is readily visible from Earth and has been extensively studied from orbit. As the surface cools during polar night, CO₂ condenses directly out of the atmosphere at a rate that establishes equilibrium between radiative loss and latent heat of condensation. Since radiative loss is strongly geometry-dependent, the CO₂ frost will grow most rapidly on exposed surfaces and more slowly in depressions. Positive feedback will cause a dramatic enhancement of the relief of the underlying topography and a corresponding reduction in the average bulk density. The resulting surface will be highly textured and riddled with perforations.     

The lateglacial lakes of Glens Roy,Spean and vicinity (Lochaber district,Scottish Highlands)

This paper summarises the evidence for glacial ice advance into lower Glen Spean during the Loch Lomond Stadial which involved the blockage of westward-flowing drainage to form a series of ice-dammed lakes, the former surfaces of which are marked by prominent shorelines. Detailed mapping of glacigenic landforms and instrumental levelling of the shorelines reveals a dynamic interplay between the glacier margins and lake formation. Subsequent deglaciation led to lowering of the lake levels, at times by catastrophic drainage beneath the ice (jökulhlaup). The abandoned shorelines have been warped and dislocated in numerous places as a result of glacio-isostatic deformation, faulting and landslip activity. The pattern of retreat of the ice can be deduced from the mapped distributions of retreat moraines and the levelled altitudes of numerous kame and fluvial terrace fragments. The sequence of events outlined in this paper provides important context for understanding the evolution of the landscape of the Glen Roy area during the Loch Lomond Stadial, and a prelude to more recent studies reported in other contributions to this thematic issue.     

First rocks sampled in Antarctica (1840): Insights into the landing area and the Terre Adélie craton

In January 1840, Dumont d’Urville's expedition landed along the coast of “Terre Adélie” and took three rock specimens, the first ever sampled on the Antarctic continent. The petrological and geochemical study of these samples, stored at the “Muséum national d’histoire naturelle”, in Paris, characterizes them as migmatitic cordierite + microcline-bearing paragneiss and mesocratic quartz + biotite-bearing amphibolite. The paragneiss reached 670 °C at 3.2 kbar, suggesting an abnormal high-T gradient of ca. 60 °C/km during the regional metamorphism that affected the “Terre Adélie” craton 1.7 Ga ago. The studied samples are identical to the rocks observed at the “Rocher du Débarquement”, confirming that this was the actual landing place. On the other hand, quartz diorite and volcanic rocks reportedly sampled in Adélie Land during the same expedition and stored at Le Mans and Toulouse Museums do not originate from Antarctica. The examination of Dumont d’Urville's map suggests an icecap shrinking by 9 km in the landing area since 1840.     

Geological Drilling in Polar Regions: Progress and Perspectives

The Antarctic and the Arctic regions play a key role in global sea level change and carbon cycle, and reserve key information of the Cenozoic transition from a green-house to an ice-house Earth. They have become hot spots in earth science studies. The geological drilling projects in both polar regions (e.g., DSDP/ODP/IODP/ICDP) have achieved remarkable successes, which have freshened the knowledge of global environmental and climatic evolution. Along with the Cenozoic global cooling, the timing of glaciation was almost synchronous on both the Antarctic and the Arctic. Accompanied with the Antarctic ice sheet build-up and increased terrestrial weathering, the enhanced formation of Antarctic Bottom Water exerts significant impact on global ocean circulation. The volume of unstable West Antarctic Ice Sheet fluctuates during glacial-interglacial periods showing 40 ka obliquity cycles, its volume significantly reduced or collapsed during several peak interglacials or long warm intervals. The Southern Ocean plays a significant role modulating atmospheric CO₂ concentration, global deep water circulation and nutrient distribution, productivity at different time scales. Sea level responses to the waxing and waning of polar ice sheets at different time intervals were tested, which provide valuable clue for predicting future sea level changes. The upcoming IODP drilling projects on polar regions will keep focusing on the high latitude ice sheet development, Southern Ocean paleoceanographic evolution, land-ocean linkages in the Arctic, and the impacts on the global climate, which will provide important boundary conditions for predicting global future climate evolution.