Chemical and isotope compositions of shallow groundwater in areas impacted by hydraulic fracturing and surface mining in the Central Appalachian Basin,Eastern United States

Hydraulic fracturing of shale deposits has greatly increased the productivity of the natural gas industry by allowing it to exploit previously inaccessible reservoirs. Previous research has demonstrated that this practice has the potential to contaminate shallow aquifers with methane (CH₄) from deeper formations. This study compares concentrations and isotopic compositions of CH₄ sampled from domestic groundwater wells in Letcher County, Eastern Kentucky in order to characterize its occurrence and origins in relation to both neighboring hydraulically fractured natural gas wells and surface coal mines. The studied groundwater showed concentrations of CH₄ ranging from 0.05 mg/L to 10 mg/L, thus, no immediate remediation is required. The δ¹³C values of CH₄ ranged from −66‰ to −16‰, and δ²H values ranged from −286‰ to −86‰, suggesting an immature thermogenic and mixed biogenic/thermogenic origin. The occurrence of CH₄ was not correlated with proximity to hydraulically fractured natural gas wells. Generally, CH₄ occurrence corresponded with groundwater abundant in Na⁺, Cl⁻, and HCO₃⁻, and with low concentrations of SO₄²⁻. The CH₄ and SO₄²⁻concentrations were best predicted by the oxidation/reduction potential of the studied groundwater. CH₄ was abundant in more reducing waters, and SO₄²⁻ was abundant in more oxidizing waters. Additionally, groundwater in greater proximity to surface mining was more likely to be oxidized. This, in turn, might have increased the likelihood of CH₄ oxidation in shallow groundwater.     

Effects of coarse-grained material on hydraulic properties and shear strength of top soil

Sidewalk failures associated with top soil of low shear strength are a common problem in urban areas. Mixing top soil with granite chips can be used to increase its permeability and shear strength. The effects of mixing granite chips with top soils on the hydraulic properties and shear strength under saturated and unsaturated conditions were investigated in this study. The results showed that the mixing top soils with granite chips caused changes in several key parameters of the soil–water characteristic curve (e.g., the air-entry value, the residual matric suction, and the residual volumetric water content) and the unsaturated permeability of the top soils. The saturated permeability and shear strength of the soil mixture increased with increasing content of granite chips.     

Seismic source mechanism inversion from a linear array of receivers reveals non-double-couple seismic events induced by hydraulic fracturing in sedimentary formation

We developed a new method to invert source mechanisms of seismic events observed from a single (vertical or near vertical) array of receivers. This method was tested on a synthetic dataset and applied to a seismic dataset acquired during hydraulic fracturing of a sedimentary formation. We show that a crack-opening seismic event recorded on a single vertical array can be inverted as a pure shear seismic event, indicating that the best fitting shear mechanisms inverted from seismic data acquired along a vertical borehole provide misleading information. We found that the majority of the analyzed source mechanisms of the induced events are not consistent with pure shear faulting as previously thought. The non-shear source mechanisms are required even when seismic noise, location uncertainty, and uncertainty in the attenuation structural model are considered.     

Flow and solute transport monitoring in the karst aquifer in SW Slovenia

The role of the unsaturated zone in the karst aquifer hydraulic behaviour was brought into focus in these studies of the catchment of the Hubelj spring (SW Slovenia). The variations of natural tracers in precipitation and in groundwater during a summer storm event made it possible to trace local flow and solute transport in the observed aquifer. The results produced data on the aquifer recharge, storage and discharge processes, as well as on mechanisms that affected them, which reflects a karst groundwater dynamics also at a regional scale. They point out the significance of effects of the fast preferential flow—epiflow that is the main factor controlling solute/contaminant transport towards the aquifer saturated zone. Numerous arguments indicate that the karst aquifer flow and solute transport mechanisms depend on the hydraulic behaviour of the epikarst zone.     

Factors influencing the hydraulic properties of wells in dolomite aquifers of Slovenia

The influence of eight factors on hydraulic parameters (transmissivity, hydraulic conductivity, specific capacity, specific capacity index and maximum yields) are analysed, with data based on hydrogeological reports of 298 wells in dolomite aquifers in Slovenia. Influence of lithological properties is very significant, with the highest values of analysed variables observed in pure late-diagenetic intensely fractured Cordevolian dolomites, followed by Anisian and Late Triassic (‘Main’ dolomite) dolomites with high carbonate content and high primary porosity. The hydraulic parameters are not dependent on aquifer age, partial penetration, and well depth. The effects of depth to the water table and existence of low permeability overburden are not of major importance. The hydraulic parameter values are higher the closer to a river the wells are located, and topographic setting has a major effect. From the well reports, it was not always deduced whether the values of hydraulic conductivity and transmissivity stand for the values of the fractures or of the matrix, so it is proposed that when there is doubt as to whether these values are properly calculated, the most accurate parameters that can be used for a further prediction of aquifer yield are the specific capacity and, to a somewhat lesser extent, the specific capacity index.

---

Résumé  L’influence de 8 facteurs sur les paramètres hydrauliques (transmissivité, perméabilité, débit spécifique, courbe caractéristique et débit critique) est analysée sur des données issues des rapports de 298 puits dans les aquifères dolomitiques de Slovénie. L’influence des propriétés lithologiques est très significative : les valeurs les plus élevées sont observées dans les dolomies cordevoliennes pures, intensément fracturées et de diagénèse tardive, puis dans les dolomies de l’Anisien et du Trias Supérieur, avec une teneur élevée en carbonates et une forte porosité primaire. Les paramètres hydrauliques ne dépendent pas de l’age de l’aquifère, de la pénétration partielle ou de la profondeur. Les effets du niveau piézométrique et de l’existence d’une couverture peu perméable sont mineurs. Les paramètres hydrauliques augmentent à proximité des rivières, et la topographie a une influence majeure. Les rapports de forage ne stipulent pas systématiquement si les valeurs de perméabilité et de transmissivité sont relatives au réseau de fractures ou à la matrice ; il a par conséquent été proposé qu’en cas de doute sur le calcul de ces valeurs, les paramètres les plus significatifs pour remonter à la productivité de l’aquifère soient le débit spécifique et, dans une moindre mesure, la courbe caractéristique.

---

Resumen  Se analiza la influencia de ocho factores sobre parámetros hidráulicos (transmisividad, conductividad hidráulica, capacidad específica, índice de capacidad específica, y rendimientos máximos) en base a datos de reportes hidrogeológicos de 298 pozos en acuíferos de dolomía en Eslovenia. La influencia de las propiedades litológicas es muy significativa con los valores más altos de variables analizadas presentes en dolomías Cordevolianas con diagénesis tardía fracturadas intensamente, seguidas por dolomías (dolomía “Principal”) del Anisiano y Triásico Tardío con alto contenido de carbonato y alta porosidad primaria. Los valores de los parámetros hidráulicos no son dependientes de la edad del acuífero, penetración parcial, y profundidad del pozo. Los efectos de profundidad al nivel freático y existencia de cobertura de baja permeabilidad no son de importancia fundamental. Los valores de los parámetros hidráulicos son más altos mientras más cerca de un río se localizan los pozos y el ámbito topográfico tiene un efecto principal. No se pudo deducir de los reportes de los pozos si los valores de transmisividad y conductividad hidráulica representan valores de las fracturas o de la matriz, de modo que se propone que cuando exista duda en cuanto a que si estos valores se han calculado de manera adecuada, los parámetros de mayor precisión que pueden utilizarse para una predicción futura del rendimiento del acuífero son la capacidad específica y, en menor medida, el índice de capacidad específica.

     

Effect of soil disturbance on recharging fluxes: case study on the Snake River Plain,Idaho National Laboratory,USA

Soil structural disturbance influences the downward flow of water that percolates deep enough to become aquifer recharge. Data from identical experiments in an undisturbed silt-loam soil and in an adjacent simulated waste trench composed of the same soil material, but disturbed, included (1) laboratory- and field-measured unsaturated hydraulic properties and (2) field-measured transient water content profiles through 24 h of ponded infiltration and 75 d of redistribution. In undisturbed soil, wetting fronts were highly diffuse above 2 m depth, and did not go much deeper than 2 m. Darcian analysis suggests an average recharge rate less than 2 mm/year. In disturbed soil, wetting fronts were sharp and initial infiltration slower; water moved slowly below 2 m without obvious impediment. Richards’ equation simulations with realistic conditions predicted sharp wetting fronts, as observed for disturbed soil. Such simulations were adequate for undisturbed soil only if started from a post-initial moisture distribution that included about 3 h of infiltration. These late-started simulations remained good, however, through the 76 d of data. Overall results suggest the net effect of soil disturbance, although it reduces preferential flow, may be to increase recharge by disrupting layer contrasts.     

Estimating hydraulic conductivity from specific capacity for Hawaii aquifers,USA

Site-specific relationships between specific capacity and hydraulic parameters (transmissivity and hydraulic conductivity) were investigated for volcanic rocks in Maui, Hawaii, USA. Details about well construction were commonly ignored in previous studies. To improve on such efforts, specific-capacity values were normalized by the open interval of the well. Correcting specific capacity for turbulent head losses using step-drawdown tests and including aquifer penetration length improved the correlation between specific capacity and hydraulic conductivity and reduced uncertainty in the prediction of hydraulic parameters. The relationships provide estimates of aquifer parameters with correlation coefficients between 0.81 and 0.99. The relationships for Maui can probably be extended to other Hawaii islands, given the similarity of aquifer formations and a reasonable fit to step-drawdown data from Oahu. Hydraulic conductivity was estimated from 1,257 specific-capacity values in the Hawaii’s well database. Hydraulic-conductivity estimates for dike-free volcanic rocks are consistent on different islands. For all islands, the estimates range from 3 to 8,200 m/d, with a geometric-mean and median value of 272 and 291 m/d, respectively. A geostatistical approach was applied to Maui and Oahu to generate island-wide hydraulic-conductivity maps to facilitate groundwater management efforts.     

The bailer test: a simple effective pumping test for assessing borehole success

A new pumping test method has been designed around the practical requirements of those working in rural water-supply projects in developing countries. The bailer test needs only simple equipment and can be completed in under 1 h. The test involves removing 20–50 bails from a borehole over a 10-min period and then measuring the recovery. The test is analysed using large-diameter-well analysis (which accounts for well storage) and is appropriate for testing low productivity aquifers (transmissivity 0.1–10 m² d^–1), where water levels are shallow (<20 m depth). The bailer test was developed and trialled in a rural water supply project in Nigeria where it was found to predict similar transmissivity to 5-h constant rate tests (r²=0.9). Analysis of the test was further simplified to provide guidelines for field staff such as community health workers. The likelihood of a borehole sustaining a handpump for 250 people can be indicated by measuring the maximum drawdown and time for 50 and 75% recovery from a bailer test and comparing to a simple table. This simplified test is now being used in this and other rural water-supply projects, and has been modified to indicate whether a borehole can sustain higher yields for small-scale irrigation.     

Upper mantle beneath Kamchatka: The depth model and its relation to tectonics

The comparative analysis of geological-geophysical data on the deep structure of the Kamchatka Peninsula and the seismic tomography model of the upper mantle revealed the coordinated spatial structure of the regional lithosphere with outlining beneath eastern Kamchatka and the boundaries, thickness, and distribution area of the asthenolith, which was first defined under its central part. Low-velocity bodies connected with the velocity structure of the focal layer and its seismicity patterns are established under recent volcanic belts. It is shown that subordination of the upper mantle structure to fault tectonics is a dominant feature at some of its levels. The system of NW-trending faults in the Petropavlovsk-Kamchatskii area, which is likely responsible for significant horizontal displacements in the upper mantle, is most contrasting. It is assumed that defined asthenolith heterogeneities continue under the Sredinnyi (Median) Range.     

Model and experimental study on jetting flow rate for installing surface conductor in deep-water

Jetting is preferentially adopted for surface conductor installation in deep-water oil and gas facilities. Surface conductor bearing capacity decreases due to soil disturbance, which is the main risk of jetting technology. A calculation model of the minimum jetting flow rate is established based on Bernoulli's theorem and soil mechanics. Jetting experiments are carried out to investigate the effect of jetting flow rate on the bearing capacity of surface conductor. Experiment results show that the bearing capacity of surface conductor decreases exponentially with flow rate. Considering the effect of flow rate both on hydraulic breaking soil capacity and the bearing capacity of surface conductor, a design method of jetting flow rate for installing surface conductor is proposed. This method ensures the successful implementation of jetting technology and has been successfully applied in more than 30 deep-water wells in the South China Sea and West Africa.