Modeling of multi-strata forest fire severity using Landsat TM Data

Most of fire severity studies use field measures of composite burn index (CBI) to represent forest fire severity and fit the relationships between CBI and Landsat imagery derived differenced normalized burn ratio (dNBR) to predict and map fire severity at unsampled locations. However, less attention has been paid on the multi-strata forest fire severity, which represents fire activities and ecological responses at different forest layers. In this study, using field measured fire severity across five forest strata of dominant tree, intermediate-sized tree, shrub, herb, substrate layers, and the aggregated measure of CBI as response variables, we fit statistical models with predictors of Landsat TM bands, Landsat derived NBR or dNBR, image differencing, and image ratioing data. We model multi-strata forest fire in the historical recorded largest wildfire in California, the Big Sur Basin Complex fire. We explore the potential contributions of the post-fire Landsat bands, image differencing, image ratioing to fire severity modeling and compare with the widely used NBR and dNBR. Models using combinations of post-fire Landsat bands perform much better than NBR, dNBR, image differencing, and image ratioing. We predict and map multi-strata forest fire severity across the whole Big Sur fire areas, and find that the overall measure CBI is not optimal to represent multi-strata forest fire severity.     

河西地区非均匀下垫面的大气变性过程

利用ＨＥＩＦＥ野外观测资料，分析了河西地区黑河流域夏半年下面动力和热力特性的不均匀 ；并以个别具有一定代表性的晴天观测资料为例，客观地分析了绿洲与沙漠或戈壁下垫面突变所产生的近地层大气变性过程；初步解释发绿洲近地层逆温和沙漠或戈壁近地层逆湿的形成机制，同时也讨论了绿洲和沙的水汽输送过程。     

An evaluation on the degradation evolutions in three constitutive models for bonded geomaterials by DEM analyses

This paper presents a numerical evaluation on the degradation evolutions in three well-known constitutive models for bonded geomaterials using the Distinct Element Method (DEM). A series of isotropic, constant stress ratio and biaxial compression tests on the bonded geomaterials were carried out by a two-dimensional (2D) DEM code, NS2D, for this purpose. The constitutive models examined are the disturbed state constitutive model (DSC model), the superloading yield surface model and Nova’s model. First, a microscopic interpretation of the degradation variable, which is used to describe the degradation evolution in the models, was presented based on the micromechanics theory to compare the degradation evolutions used by the models with the DEM results. Then, the macromechanical responses of the numerical specimens in the DEM tests were examined in comparison with the experimental data on the artificially bonded sands. Finally, the degradation evolutions observed in the DEM tests were compared with the results predicted by the constitutive models. The study shows that the DEM results are able to capture the main features of the artificially bonded sands. The degradation evolutions used in the three constitutive models are all overally in agreement with the DEM results. In addition, two simple evolution equations for the degradation variable, which can well describe the degradation evolution observed in the DEM tests, were presented and discussed.     

Simulation of surface energy fluxes using high-resolution non-hydrostatic simulations and comparisons with measurements for the LITFASS-2003 experiment

Land-surface heterogeneity effects on the subgrid scale of regional climate and numerical weather prediction models are of vital interest for the energy and mass exchange between the surface and the atmospheric boundary layer. High-resolution numerical model simulations can be used to quantify these effects, and are a tool used to obtain area-averaged surface fluxes over heterogeneous land surfaces. We present high-resolution model simulations for the LITFASS area near Berlin during the LITFASS-2003 experiment, which were carried out using the non-hydrostatic model FOOT3DK of the University of Köln with horizontal resolutions of 1 km and 250 m. The LITFASS-2003 experimental dataset is used for comparison. The screen level quantities show good quality for the simulated pressure, temperature, humidity and wind speed and direction. Averaged over the four week experimental period, simulated surface energy fluxes at land stations show a small bias for the turbulent heat fluxes and an underestimation of the net radiation caused by excessive cloudiness in the simulations. For eight selected days with low cloud amounts, the net radiation bias is close to zero, but the sensible heat flux shows a strong positive bias. Large differences are found for latent heat fluxes over a lake, which are partly due to local effects on the measurements, but an additional problem seems to be the overestimation of the turbulent exchange under stable conditions in the daytime internal boundary layer over the lake. In the area average over the LITFASS area of 20 ×  20 km², again a strong positive bias of 70 W m^?2 for the sensible heat is present. For the low soil moisture conditions during June 2003, the simulation of the turbulent heat fluxes is sensitive to variations in the soil type and its hydrological properties. Under these conditions, the supply of ground water to the lowest soil layer should be accounted for. Different area-averaging methods are tested. The experimental set-up of the LITFASS-2003 experiment is found to be well suited for the computation of area-averaged turbulent heat fluxes.     

基于PML边界条件的高倍可变网格有限差分数值模拟方法

非均匀介质一般为多尺度介质,对非均匀介质进行正演模拟需要多尺度的网格剖分.碳酸盐岩缝洞介质的尺度一般为厘米级甚至毫米级.使用有限差分方法对其进行精细模拟需要差分步长达到缝洞介质的尺度.为了提高有限差分数值模拟方法的精度和效率,使之可以应用于非均匀介质的正演模拟,本文推导了基于PML边界的空间和时间步长同时变化的高倍数可变网格差分格式,步长变化倍数可以达到百倍以上.并且在一般意义的变网格算法的基础上,改进了变网格算法的网格剖分方式,进一步减小了精细尺度模型数值模拟的内存消耗.数值试验表明,该方法可以精细描述毫米尺度的地质体,提高有限差分方法模拟精度,同时也节约了内存,提高了模拟效率.     

Interaction between Wind and Temperature Fields in the Planetary Boundary Layer for a Spatially Heterogeneous Surface Heat Flux

Interaction between wind and temperature fields in the planetary boundary layerfor a spatially heterogeneous surface heat flux has been investigated using large-eddysimulation. It is shown that a substantial difference exists in the wind and temperaturefields, depending on whether the directions of the background wind and the surfaceheat flux variation are parallel or perpendicular.When they are parallel to each other, two-dimensional plumes induced by theheterogeneous surface heat flux are easily destroyed by the background wind,and the velocity field is strongly modified by convective eddies compared tothe case when they are perpendicular to each other. This leads to a substantialdifference in the profiles of turbulent kinetic energy and its flux.It also results in a difference between the two cases in the bulk properties of theplanetary boundary layer, such as the entrainment at the top of the planetary boundarylayer and the drag at the bottom, which have important implications for boundary-layermodelling. The difference between the two cases exists even when the background windspeed is as large as 15.0 m s^-1. Meanwhile, the contrast between two cases is weakened by the Coriolis force.     

The initiation and linkage of surface fractures above a buried strike-slip fault: An experimental approach

Surface fractures in the overburdened sedimentary rocks, formed above a deep-seated basement fault, often provide important information about the kinematics of the underlying master fault. It has already been established that these surface fractures dynamically evolve and link one another with progressive displacement on the master fault below. In the present study, two different series of riedel-type experiments were carried out with clay analogue models under different boundary conditions viz., (i) heterogeneous simple shear of the cover rocks above a buried strike slip fault (wrench system) and (ii) heterogeneous simple shear with a component of shear-normal compression of the overburden package above a basement fault (transpressional system), to observe the initiation and linkage of surface fractures with varying T′ (where T′ = thickness of the overburden normalized with respect to the width of the master fault). In the wrench system, Riedel (R) shears were linked by principal displacement (Y) shears at early stages (shear strain of 0.8 to 1) in thin (2 < T′ < 18) models and finally (at a minimum shear strain of 1.4) gave rise to a through-going fault parallel to the basement fault without development of any other fracture. Conjugate Riedel (R′) shears develop only within the thicker (T′ > 18) clay models at a minimum shear strain of 0.7. With increasing deformation (at a minimum shear strain of 1.2) two R′ shears were joined by an R shear and finally opened up to make a sigmoidal vein with an asymmetry antithetic to the major fault-movement sense. Under transpression, the results were similar to that of heterogeneous simple shear for layers 2 < T′ < 15. In layers of intermediate thickness (15 < T′ < 25) early formed high angle R shears were cross cut by low angle R shears (at a minimum shear strain of 0.5 and shortening of 0.028) and “Riedel-within-Riedel” shears were formed within thick (T′ > 25) models (at minimum shear strain of 0.7 and shortening of 0.1), with marked angularity of secondary fault zone with the master fault at depth.     

Direct inversion for a fluid factor and its application in heterogeneous reservoirs

Prestack seismic inversion plays an important role in estimating elastic parameters that are sensitive to reservoirs and fluid underground. In this paper, a simultaneous inversion method named FMR‐AVA (Fluid Factor, Mu (Shear modulus), Rho (Density)‐Amplitude Variation with Angle) is proposed based on partial angle stack seismic gathers. This method can be used for direct inversion for the fluid factor, shear modulus and density of heterogeneous reservoirs. Firstly, an FMR approximation equation of a reflection coefficient is derived based on poroelasticity with P‐ and S‐wave moduli. Secondly, a stable simultaneous AVA inversion approach is presented in a Bayesian scheme. This approach has little dependence on initial models. Furthermore, it can be applied in heterogeneous reservoirs whose initial models for inversion are not easy to establish. Finally, a model test shows the superiority of this FMR‐AVA inversion method in stability and independence of initial models. We obtain a reasonable fluid factor, shear modulus and density even with smooth initial models and moderate Gaussian noise. A real data case example shows that the inverted fluid factor, shear modulus and density fit nicely with well log interpretation results, which verifies the effectiveness of the proposed method.     

Anisotropic model of damage for geomaterials and concrete

A damage model for geomaterials and concrete is proposed. This model expresses the anisotropic character induced by the degradation of material. The law of behavior obtained by differentiation of the free energy shows the dissymmetry effect observed in traction–compression loading and the residual strains caused by the damage. The present approach requires the identification of a reduced number of parameters having a clear physical significance. An application to the case of the uniaxial traction–compression loading shows a good adequacy with the experimental observations. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Heterogeneous Nucleophilic Transformation of Metolachlor by Bisulfide on Alumina Surface

The present research elucidates the accelerating effect of alumina minerals on metolachlor transformation using sulfur nucleophiles and also determines the metolachlor transformation mechanisms in the heterogeneous reaction systems. Metolachlor transformation was first systematically investigated under different conditions. Then, the Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectra were used to characterize the changes in the surface bonds of the aluminas. The transformation products were qualitatively identified using LC/MS. The results showed that bisulfide can produce efficient metolachlor transformation rates, and the presence of the aluminas can further accelerate the transformation by achieving complete transformation in <21 days. In addition, a higher pH and higher bisulfide concentration are more favorable for metolachlor transformation. When normalized to the surface area, the metolachlor transformation rates were found to follow the order of α‐Al₂O₃>γ‐AlOOH>γ‐Al₂O₃ in the presence of different aluminas. FTIR results indicated that the enhancement of metolachlor transformation rates by bisulfide with aluminas can be attributed to the surface active nucleophiles on alumina surfaces formed through Al? S and Al? O bonds. The substitution of chlorine on the metolachlor followed the S_N2 mechanism by bisulfide with accelerated rate through mediating the heterogeneous reactions with aluminas.