Late Holocene phases of dome growth and Plinian activity at Guagua Pichincha volcano (Ecuador)

Since the eruption which affected Quito in AD 1660, Guagua Pichincha has been considered a hazardous volcano. Based on field studies and twenty ¹⁴C dates, this paper discusses the eruptive activity of this volcano, especially that of the last 2000 years. Three major Plinian eruptions with substantial pumice discharge occurred in the 1st century, the 10th century, and in AD 1660. The ages of organic paleosols and charcoal from block-and-ash flow and fallout deposits indicate that these eruptions occurred near the end of 100 to 200 year-long cycles of discontinuous activity which was comprised of dome growth episodes and minor pumice fallouts. The first cycle took place from ~ AD 1 to 140. The second one developed during the 9th and 10th centuries, lasted 150–180 yr, and included the largest Plinian event, with a VEI of 5. The third, historic cycle, about 200 yr in duration, includes pyroclastic episodes around AD 1450 and AD 1500, explosive activity between AD 1566 and AD 1582, possible precursors of the 1660 eruption in the early decades of the 17th century, and finally the 1660 eruption (VEI 4). A fourth event probably occurred around AD 500, but its authenticity requires confirmation. The Plinian events occurred at the end of these cycles which were separated by repose periods of at least 300 yr. Older volcanic activity of similar type occurred between ~ 4000 and ~ 3000 yr BP.     

Imprints of sub-glacial volcanic activity on a glacier surface—SAR study of Katla volcano,Iceland

The Katla central volcano, covered by the fourth largest Icelandic glacier Mýrdalsjökull, is among the most dangerous and active volcanoes in Iceland. Due to the ice cover, several indicators of its volcanic activity can only be identified indirectly. We analysed a total of 30 synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images with special focus on identifying circular and linear depressions in the glacier surface. Such features are indicative of sub-glacial geothermal heat sources and the adjacent sub-glacial tunnel (melt water drainage) system. The time series comprises images from five different SAR sensors (ERS-1, ERS-2, JERS-1/SAR, RADARSAT and ENVISAT-ASAR) covering a time period of 12 years, starting in 1994. Individual SAR scenes only partly map the glacier surface morphology due to the environmental influences on the SAR backscatter intensity. Thus, only surface features detectable in several SAR scenes at the same location were considered and merged to form an overall picture of the surface morphology of Mýrdalsjökull and its modification by sub-glacial volcanic activity between 1994 and 2006. Twenty permanent and 4 semi-permanent ice cauldrons could be identified on the surface of Mýrdalsjökull indicating geothermally active areas in the underlying caldera. An analysis of their size was not possible due to the indistinct outline in the SAR images. The spatial distribution of the geothermally active areas led to a new, piecemeal caldera model of Katla volcano. All cauldrons are connected to tunnel systems for melt water drainage. More than 100 km of the sub-glacial drainage system could be identified under the Mýrdalsjökull in the SAR time series. It has been found that the tunnel systems are not in agreement with estimated water divides. Our results allow improved assessment of areas of potential Jökulhlaup hazard accompanying a sub-glacial eruption.     

Investigating crater lake warming using ASTER thermal imagery: Case studies at Ruapehu,Poás,Kawah Ijen,and Copahué Volcanoes

A two-channel or split-window algorithm designed to correct for atmospheric conditions was applied to thermal images taken by the Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) of Lake Yugama on Kusatsu–Shirane volcano in Japan in order to measure the temperature of its crater lake. These temperature calculations were validated using lake water temperatures that were collected on the ground. Overall, the agreement between the temperatures calculated using the split-window method and ground truth is quite good, typically ± 1.5 °C for cloud-free images. Data from fieldwork undertaken in the summer of 2004 at Kusatsu–Shirane allow a comparison of ground-truth data with the radiant temperatures measured using ASTER imagery. Further images were analyzed of Ruapehu, Poás, Kawah Ijen, and Copahué volcanoes to acquire time-series of lake temperatures. A total of 64 images of these 4 volcanoes covering a wide range of geographical locations and climates were analyzed. Results of the split-window algorithm applied to ASTER images are reliable for monitoring thermal changes in active volcanic lakes. These temperature data, when considered in conjunction with traditional volcano monitoring techniques, lead to a better understanding of whether and how thermal changes in crater lakes aid in eruption forecasting.     

Volcanic seismicity at Montserrat,a comparison between the 2005 dome growth episode and earlier dome growth

In 2005 Soufrière Hills Volcano on Montserrat started its third major episode of dome growth since the current eruption started in 1995. The style of seismicity associated with dome growth has changed, in particular the events known as ‘hybrid’ earthquakes have reduced in numbers by an order of magnitude compared to previous dome growth episodes. In the past, hybrid earthquakes have been associated with magma ascent and so it is surprising to observe prolonged periods of rapid dome growth during which very few hybrid earthquakes are recorded. In addition, the frequency of the codas of hybrid earthquakes, as well as of some of the so called ‘long-period’ events, has changed. The changes in recorded seismicity have had a marked effect on the techniques used to monitor the state of the volcano and those events that continue to be recorded in large numbers (‘rockfall events’) have been used to assess the state of activity at the volcano.     

Video and seismic observations of Strombolian eruptions at Erebus volcano,Antarctica

Between 1986 and 1990 the eruptive activity of Erebus volcano was monitored by a video camera with on-screen time code and recorded on video tape. Corresponding seismic and acoustic signals were recorded from a network of 6 geophones and 2 infrasonic microphones. Two hundred Strombolian explosions and three lava flows which were erupted from 7 vents were captured on video. In December 1986 the Strombolian eruptions ejected bombs and ash. In November 1987 large bubble-bursting Strombolian eruptions were observed. The bubbles burst when the bubble walls thinned to ∼ 20 cm. Explosions with bomb flight-times up to 14.5 s were accompanied by seismic signals with our local size estimate, “unified magnitudes” (m_u), up to 2.3. Explosions in pools of lava formed by flows in the Inner Crater were comparatively weak.     

Importance of Remote-Sensing Data in Structural Geologic Analysis of Oil- and Gas-Bearing Regions of Azerbaijan

In addition to surface geologic and geophysical investigations, Panchromatic SPOT and Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) data were merged using an IHS approach to produce a satellite composite image to use as a basis for structural geologic analysis of the oil- and gas-bearing regions of Azerbaijan, including the South Caspian and Kura Basins. With the development of new exploration technology, various nonseismic reconnaissance methods, such as remote sensing, gravity, and magnetics for oil exploration have been substantiated and improved. The Azerbaijan and surrounding mountain ranges are favorable for studying natural hydrocarbon seepages. Most of the seepage occurs in faulted and mud volcano areas onshore of the Caspian Sea in Azerbaijan. Determining the geometry of the fault system from analysis of remote-sensing data allows prediction of (1) vertical oil migration from source rocks into tectonic traps in overlying formations and (2) quantitative volume of oil reservoirs.     

D/H and O/O ratios of water in the crater lake at Kusatsu-Shirane volcano, Japan

The D/H and ¹⁸O/¹⁶O ratios of water in the active crater lake situated on the Kusatsu-Shirane volcano, Japan are about 20 and 6‰, respectively, higher than local meteoric water. The ratios show seasonal variations superimposed on a gradual change over nine years. The isotopic ratios started to increase in early 1990 and decrease in the spring of 1995. The seasonal variation which is high in winter and low in summer correlates with the temperature difference between lake water and ambient air. The large temperature difference in winter enhances the evaporation of lake water and produces the enriched isotopic ratios relative to the ratios in summer. The accumulation of snow and the decrease in the flux of meteoric water into the lake strengthens the winter-time isotopic enrichment. The enriched isotopic ratios of the lake water over a long time result from the addition of an end member with heavy isotopic ratios contained in a thermal fluid supplied to the lake. Considering the water balance in the lake, the isotopic ratios of the thermal fluid were found to be close to the lake water itself, suggesting the circulation of the lake water seeping through lake floor. Based on the correlation between Cl⁻concentration and the isotopic ratios, the contribution by the heavy end member was estimated to be 25–36% relative to the enrichment by evaporation. The heavy end member could be a liquid phase evolved from a parental fluid, which is a mixture of local meteoric water and a magmatic fluid as found in high-temperature volcanic gases.     

Toward a revised hazard assessment at Merapi volcano, Central Java

Of 1.1 million people living on the flanks of the active Merapi volcano, 440,000 are at relatively high risk in areas prone to pyroclastic flows, surges, and lahars. For the last two centuries, the activity of Merapi has alternated regularly between long periods of viscous lava dome extrusion, and brief explosive episodes at 8–15 year intervals, which generated dome-collapse pyroclastic flows and destroyed part of the pre-existing domes. Violent explosive episodes on an average recurrence of 26–54 years have generated pyroclastic flows, surges, tephra-falls, and subsequent lahars. The 61 reported eruptions since the mid-1500s killed about 7000 people. The current hazard-zone map of Merapi (Pardyanto et al., 1978) portrays three areas, termed ‘forbidden zone’, ‘first danger zone’ and ‘second danger zone’, based on successively declining hazards. Revision of the hazard map is desirable, because it lacks details necessary to outline hazard zones with accuracy, in particular the valleys likely to be swept by lahars, and excludes some areas likely to be devastated by pyroclastic gravity-currents such as the 22 November 1994 surge. In addition, risk maps should be developed to incorporate social, technical, and economic factors of vulnerability.Eruptive hazard assessment at Merapi is based on reconstructed eruptive history, on eruptive behavior and scenarios, and on existing models and preliminary numerical modeling. Firstly, the reconstructed eruptive activity, in particular for the past 7000 years and from historical accounts of eruptions, helps to define the extent and recurrence frequency of the most hazardous phenomena (Newhall et al., 2000; Camus et al., 2000). Pyroclastic flows traveled as far as 9–15 km from the source, pyroclastic surges swept the flanks as far as 9–20 km away from the vent, thick tephra fall buried temples in the vicinity of Yogyakarta 25 km to the south, and subsequent lahars spilled down the radial valleys as far as 30 km to the west and south. At least one large edifice collapse has occurred in the past 7000 years (Newhall et al., 2000; Camus et al., 2000). Secondly, four eruption scenarios are portrayed as hazardous zones on two maps and derived from the past eruptive behavior of Merapi and from the most affected areas in the past. Thirdly, simple numerical simulation, based on a Digital Elevation Model, a stereo-pair of SPOT satellite images, and one 2D-orthoimage helps to simulate pyroclastic and lahar flowage on the flanks and in radial valley channels, and to outline areas likely to be devastated.Three major threats are identified: (1) a collapse of the summit dome in the short-to mid-term, that can release large-volume pyroclastic flows and high-energy surges towards the south–southwest sector of the volcano; (2) an explosive eruption, much larger than any since 1930, may sweep all the flanks of Merapi at least once every century; (3) a potential collapse of the summit area, involving the fumarolic field of Gendol and part of the southern flank, which can contribute to moderate-scale debris avalanches and debris flows.     

腾冲火山地球化学综合观测站建设

在腾冲火山地区开展地球化学综合则监测火山活动重要而有效的方法之一。通过火山地区地下流体观测,可记录地壳应力应变、地温变化、气体及离子组份的释放量、释放方式和释放成分,进而可了解地壳内部岩浆活动与通道开启状况,为火山活动、构造活动、地震活动提供信息,开展监测、预测、对策研究。现腾冲火山地化综合观测站经科学下、选井、选址、选项,已完成基建及仪器安装等建设,基本测项已投入正常观测。     

用数字记录资料测定腾冲火山区的微震参数

利用数字化地震记录资料 ,测定了腾冲火山及其周围地区的地震基本参数 ,结果表明 ,腾冲火山区内的地震活动以微震为主 ,震级多数在 1～ 2 5级之间 ,且地震活动频度低 ;而周围地区的构造地震活动频繁 ,且强度大。在腾冲火山区内地震活动的空间分布也表现出明显的非均匀性 ,以腾冲县城以北 (即 2 5°N以北 )的火山区内地震活动少 ,而县城以南的火山区 (热海热田地区 )微震活动相对多 ,且以微震群的形式发生。根据C F Richter震级标度测定的震级结果 ,火山区的微震活动事件可达 0 4震级单位。震源深度的定位结果给出 ,火山地区的微震震源深度绝大多数在 1～ 6km的范围 ,属于典型的浅源地震 ,而周围地区构造地震的震源深度多多数大于 2 0km。腾冲火山区的微震活动分布、地震强度、及震源深度特征所表现的现象可能与地下岩浆体活动相关 ,显示了与火山热物质孕震机理有关的明显特征。