Four-stream Radiative Transfer Parameterization Scheme in a Land Surface Process Model

Accurate estimates of albedos are required in climate modeling. Accurate and simple schemes for radiative transfer within canopy are required for these estimates, but severe limitations exist. This paper developed a four-stream solar radiative transfer model and coupled it with a land surface process model. The radiative model uses a four-stream approximation method as in the atmosphere to obtain analytic solutions of the basic equation of canopy radiative transfer. As an analytical model, the four-stream radiative transfer model can be easily applied efficiently to improve the parameterization of land surface radiation in climate models. Our four-stream solar radiative transfer model is based on a two-stream short wave radiative transfer model. It can simulate short wave solar radiative transfer within canopy according to the relevant theory in the atmosphere. Each parameter of the basic radiative transfer equation of canopy has special geometry and optical characters of leaves or canopy. The upward or downward radiative fluxes are related to the diffuse phase function, the G-function, leaf reflectivity and transmission, leaf area index, and the solar angle of the incident beam. The four-stream simulation is compared with that of the two-stream model. The four-stream model is proved successful through its consistent modeling of canopy albedo at any solar incident angle. In order to compare and find differences between the results predicted by the four- and two-stream models, a number of numerical experiments are performed through examining the effects of different leaf area indices, leaf angle distributions, optical properties of leaves, and ground surface conditions on the canopy albedo. Parallel experiments show that the canopy albedos predicted by the two models differ significantly when the leaf angle distribution is spherical and vertical. The results also show that the difference is particularly great for different incident solar beams. One additional experiment is carried out to evaluate the simulations of the BATS land surface model coupled with the two- and four-stream radiative transfer models. Station observations in 1998 are used for comparison. The results indicate that the simulation of BATS coupled with the four-stream model is the best because the surface absorbed solar radiation from the four-stream model is the closest to the observation.     

再论DEM精度评定的基本理论问题

数字高程模型(DEM)应用十分广阔。本文通过实际存在的对地面两种不同认识论观点的分析,阐明地面是多个单元曲面,它们是在复杂的地形结构线上拼接而成的确定表面,那种把地面或其局部视为随机曲面的观点不符合人类生活和生产实践;通过对系统误差和偶然误差性质概念和DEM生产过程的分析,指出DEM的总体误差以偶然误差概而论之,完全忽视了内插过程并错判了内插误差的性质;同时,对DEM的偶然误差计算中前提的设置、计算推理链的问题进行一定分析,揭示偶然误差论在实践中难予解脱的困境,并进一步阐述了它对DEM误差检核方法、标准的不良影响和对质量的危害。因此希望重视这一重要理论问题,开展讨论,澄清疑虑,促进问题的解决。     

经纬网格与流域计算的地形指数累积分布函数及其均值差异分析

为了改进陆面模式对水文过程的模拟,地形指数水文模型(Topographic-index hydrologicalmodel,TOPMODEL)已被应用于陆面模式(Land Surface Models,LSMs)。当前直接将TOPMODEL应用于全球气候模式(Global Climate Model,GCM)的网格单元的方案,简化了TOPMODEL在陆面模式中的应用。按GCM网格单元统计与按流域单元统计的地形指数分布函数之间的差异大小进行分析,可为研究TOPMODEL与陆面模式耦合的合理简化方案提供依据。利用2°×2°网格的长江上游山区和地势较平坦的亚马逊地区并应用航天雷达地形测量资料的地形高程模型数据,计算了地形指数、均值和累积分布函数,并应用相同的地形高程数据提取网格中的流域和水系并计算了各流域的地形指数、均值和累积分布函数。在此基础上,分析了按整个网格计算的和按划分的流域计算的地形指数累积分布函数及其均值的差异,并用e指数函数拟合地形指数累积分布函数。结果表明:(1)以整个GCM网格为单元统计的与按流域为单元统计的地形指数累积分布函数及其均值存在差异,但差异并不大,将TOPMODEL直接应用于GCM网格单元的这种简化方案是可行的;(2)用e指数函数能够较好地拟合地形指数累积分布函数。     

“逐步逼近式”找水方法及其在缺水地区水文地质勘查中的应用

在缺水地区开展找水水文地质勘查工作,如何提高成井供水效率,科学的找水方法至关重要。笔者介绍近10年来在我国西部地区300多个缺水村镇找水水文地质勘查实践中,总结出＂逐步逼近式＂找水方法。主要包括利用前人调查成果通过预研究确定找水方向、应用遥感解译方法圈定找水靶区、辅以简易快速物探方法的中比例尺地面调查确定富水地段、详细地面调查与物探组合技术结合优化确定钻探孔位、不同含水层选择相应钻探方法和成井工艺5个步骤。以及针对不同找水区在遥感数据源选择、简易快速物探方法应用与多方法有效组合探测的技术要点。     

GIS中多源数据的空间坐标变换方法探讨

在GIS中多源空间数据的坐标变换意义重大,根据相关原理和方法,对实际操作中坐标变换的方法进行探讨,提出利用现有GIS软件平台工具与编写程序相结合,灵活地对不同数据进行坐标变换.     

Summer evapotranspiration in western Siberia: a comparison between eddy covariance and Penman method formulations

Evapotranspiration is difficult to quantify because of the many factors and complex processes that influence it. Several empirical methods have been developed over the years to estimate potential evapotranspiration based on easily available parameters. Directly measured data of actual evapotranspiration have been rather sparse in the past and still need to be improved in particular regions like western Siberia. The transition zone between the warm temperate and cold temperate continental climates is very sensitive to climate change, and water stress is an increasingly important issue in these regions with a highly dynamic agricultural activity. So there is a growing need to estimate actual evapotranspiration. Widely usable approximations are needed. In this study, the values of potential evapotranspiration computed with the original version, and eight modifications of the Penman formulation were compared and related to the actual evapotranspiration measured by eddy covariance over a grassland area in western Siberia. The original 1948 and 1963 Penman formulations are best for estimating potential evapotranspiration in the transition zone between the forest steppes and the pre‐taiga. A nearly linear relationship between the potential and actual evapotranspiration was found. A simple modification of the Penman equation (i.e. the multiplication of the result by a factor of 0.47) is suggested for approximating the actual evapotranspiration based on standard meteorological data for the region. The original Penman formulation is most robust and will provide the widest applicability in the future under changing climate and environmental conditions. In this context, it is further recommended not to neglect the ventilation term of the Penman equation, which is often assumed to be negligibly small. A detailed correlation analysis showed that under dry soil conditions, the vegetation largely contributed to the actual evapotranspiration and, in contrast to widely held expectations, that the Penman equation is best adapted to vegetated surfaces. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

An Improved Method Based on Shallow Ice Approximation to Calculate Ice Thickness along Flow-Line and Volume of Mountain Glaciers

To evaluate the water storage and project the future evolution of glaciers, the ice-thickness of glaciers is an essential input. However, direct measurements of ice thickness are labo-rious, not feasible everywhere, and necessarily restricted to a small number of glaciers. In this article, we develop a simple method to estimate the ice-thickness along flow-line of mountain glaciers. Different from the traditional method based on shallow ice approximation (SIA), which gives a relationship be-tween ice thickn...     

航空重力测网交叉点的非遍历逼近方法

航空重力测网交叉点上的重力差值是客观评价测线测量质量的重要依据,也是调整测线之间重力场水平差异的重要途径。随着测网大型化和不规则化,测网交叉点精准、快速搜索变得至关重要。现有方法均采用缩小交叉点范围后进行逐一遍历,无法保证快速、准确搜索到所有的交叉点。本文提出的非遍历逼近方法,是通过快速逼近和微调逼近的组合进行迭代式逼近,避开逐一遍历直接快速逼近交叉点。试验表明,该方法搜索不仅适用于测点连续、均匀的常规测网,也适用于不规则、非常规测网,搜索速度较现有方法提升3～4个数量级,也远优于加拿大著名商业地球物理软件Oasis Montaj。     

Ballooning modes in the inner magnetosphere of the Earth

In this paper the low-frequency ideal MHD (magnetohydrodynamical) perturbations in the inner magnetosphere of the Earth are studied. The set of partial differential equations obtained from the MHD equations in the ballooning approximation and the dipole model of the geomagnetic field is used for this purpose. These equations describe both small-scale and large-scale perturbations in the magnetospheric plasmas. In the “cold” plasma approximation the obtained equations describe poloidal and toroidal standing Alfvén modes. The account of plasma pressure leads to the appearance of an additional type of oscillations—the slow magnetosonic modes. The stability of the magnetospheric plasma with respect to the ballooning perturbations was analyzed. We describe the ballooning perturbations taking into account a coupling between the poloidal Alfvén modes and the slow magnetosonic modes.