复杂地形下地面观测资料同化Ⅲ.两种解决模式地形与观测站地形高度差异方法的对比分析

模式地形与观测站地形高度差异是地面资料同化方案设计中的一大难点.本文通过个例和单点试验对第Ⅰ和第Ⅱ部分(徐枝芳等,2007a,2007b)中涉及的两种解决模式地形与观测站地形高度差异的地面资料同化方法(即增加温度地形代表性误差和温度订正方法)进行对比分析,并将这两种方法应用于WRF_3DVAR,进行3个月的连续数值试验.研究结果表明:随着地形高度差异的增加,采用增加观测误差方法得到的估计值向其它资料同化分析值(背景场值)靠近,在一定的高度差异下则失去了同化分析地面资料的意义;温度订正方法对温度递减率的取值较为敏感,在有探空资料参与同化分析时,温度递减率取值敏感性相对减弱.当采用的订正值较为准确时,采用温度订正方法较增加观测误差方法能更好地处理两种地形高度差异,地面资料信息应用更充分,得到的估计值最有可能接近真实值.当模式地形与观测站地形高度差异较小(小于100 m)时,两种解决模式地形与观测站地形高度差异的方法达到的效果基本一致.单点及个例试验表明,有探空资料等高质量观测参与同化分析时,采用增加观测误差方法得到分析场更接近真实场.三个月连续试验也表明有探空资料参与同化分析时,采用增加观测误差方法比温度订正法改进的郭永润同化方案(Guo et al.,2002)同化地面资料效果好,且加入地面资料同化对所有量级降水预报都有所改善.当地面资料同化方案没处理好时,加入地面资料同化的效果反而不如不加地而资料同化.     

加密自动气象站雨量计资料的质量控制 及其相关关系的研究

在长春—四平地区100 km×100 km的范围内,分布有平均间隔10 km左右的147个自动气象站。结合该区域雷达回波强度资料,对2007～2011年4～10月的气象站雨量计小时降水数据进行质量控制。多步骤质量控制结果显示,有141个自动站雨量计的数据通过了检查,删除了6个错误站点的数据,对有疑问时段的数据作了标记。 利用质量控制后的5年夏季半年自动站雨量计小时降水数据,进行相关关系统计分析表明：距离在10 km以内的雨量计测量,平均相关系数均能达到0.6以上;雨量计距离小于5 km,平均相关系数在0.7以上;而站点距离超过20 km,相关系数普遍降到0.4以下;随着统计时间的增长（从分钟到月降水量）,每个雨量计的测量值具有更高的空间代表性。     

丘陵山区多目标区域地球化学调查不同成因表层土壤代表性研究——以浙江绍兴地区为例

当前, 多目标区域地球化学调查工作已逐步进入丘陵山区, 与平原区不同, 丘陵山区地质背景更复杂, 土壤成因类型和土地利用方式多变, 土壤类型多样。如何布设土壤样点以客观真实地反映区域土壤地球化学分布特征是值得关注的问题。选择浙江绍兴市区以南40 km2的丘陵山区, 按照多目标区域地球化学调查规范样品布设原则及采样要求, 以4点/km2密度采集表层土壤样品, 测定了38项元素指标含量。通过对比不同采样密度及不同成因土壤元素含量及其空间分布特征, 开展丘陵山区表层土壤采样代表性研究。结果表明, 多目标区域地球化学调查规范中的小格采样、大格组合分析方案能够很好地反映土壤元素区域地球化学分布模式; 对于大多数元素指标而言, 在丘陵山区以1点/km2密度采集能够代表采样单元格物质组成的冲积成因土壤, 可更好地满足样品代表性要求。在评价As、Mn、Mo、Al2O3、MgO、K2O等元素指标异常时, 可倾向性地采集残坡积成因土壤。研究成果为丘陵山区多目标区域地球化学调查土壤样品采集方法的完善提供了理论依据。     

LES Study of the Energy Imbalance Problem with Eddy Covariance Fluxes

The spatial representativeness of heat fluxes on the basis of single-tower measurements, and the mechanism of the so-called energy imbalance problem, are investigated through numerical experiments using large-eddy simulation (LES). LES experiments are done for the daytime atmospheric boundary layer heated over a flat surface, as a best-case scenario completely free of sensor errors and the uncertainties of field conditions. Imbalance is defined as the deviation of the `turbulent' heat flux at a grid point from the horizontally averaged `total' heat flux. Both the theoretical and numerical results of the present study suggest the limitation of single-tower measurements and the necessity of horizontally-distributed observation networks.The temporally averaged `turbulent' flux based on a point measurement systematically underestimates the `total' flux (negative imbalance). This is attributed to local advection effects caused by the existence of turbulent organized structures (TOS), whose time scale is much longer than that of thermal plumes. The temporal and spatial change of TOS patterns causes low-frequency trends in the velocity and temperature data resulting in large scatter of the flux estimates. The influences of geostrophic wind speed, averaging time, observation height, computational domain size and resolution on tower-measured fluxes are also discussed. Finally, it is suggested that a weak inhomogenity in surface heating may reduce the negative bias of flux estimates.     

卫星降雨数据在高山峡谷地区的代表性与可靠性

以长江上游金沙江流域典型高山峡谷地区为研究对象,用该区域地面观测降雨量数据对TRMM PR 3B42 V6产品进行了3 h、日、月3个时间尺度的有效性评估,旨在为开展区域卫星与地面降水数据融合的流域水文模拟及预报奠定数据基础。分别采用了线性回归方法分析降雨量相关性、经验正交函数-奇异值分解方法(EOF-SVD)分析降雨量主要模态空间分布特征、相对偏差B_ias、错报率R_FA和探测率P_D指标对该卫星产品进行了精度评定。研究结果表明:研究区该卫星产品与地面观测数据在3个时间尺度存在显著的线性时间和空间相关性,但相关程度随时间尺度的减小而减弱;二者在空间分布上总体具有一致性特征,但在高海拔、大坡度区域表现出较为显著的差异;相对偏差指标显示2008-2010年降雨量均值相对偏差在±10%的概率密度百分数为36.08%;随高程的增加,卫星数据R_FA呈逐渐增加趋势变化,P_D呈逐渐减小趋势变化;总体上小雨对误差的贡献最大,大雨峰值误差贡献次之,时段降雨量偏差随时间尺度的增加逐渐减小,而随高程的增加卫星数据的探测精度下降。因此,对于类似的高山峡谷流域,要应用该卫星产品进行日、3 h尺度水文模拟及预报,有必要对流域卫星数据和地面观测数据进行融合,充分发挥两种数据的优势。     

北京不同区域表面气温的变化特征以及北京市观象台气温的代表性

利用北京地区14个观测站1990～2007年逐日和2004～2007年逐时的2 m气温观测资料,分析了北京城区、郊区、南部山区以及北部山区4个区域表面气温的年变化、季节变化以及春、夏、秋、冬4个季节的日变化特征,指出4个区域的气温变化特征具有明显的差异.在所有时间尺度上城区气温受城市热岛效应影响最大,表现为温度最高,郊区次之,南部山区较低,北部山区最低.1990～2007年4个区域的气温都表现出增温趋势,其中城区增温最明显,增温率明显大于其他区域.城区与其他区域气温的差异有明显的季节变化,城区与郊区、城区与北部山区气温的差异在冬季最大,夏季最小;城区与南部山区气温的差异在夏季最大,春季最小.在气温的日变化方面,城区气温在各个季节的日较差都是最小的,南部山区最大.通过比较作为北京代表站的北京市观象台的气温与4个区域的差异,发现观象台与城区气温在各个时间尺度上的差异都最小,与其他区域存在显著差异,北京市观象台气温主要代表了城区,对其他区域的代表性较差.     

Representation of Ecological Regions by Protected Areas at the Global Scale

Over the past 30 years, conservationists have sought ways to assess the quality of coverage provided by protected areas and to guide future site selection. One scheme among these addresses the degree to which areas protected for environmental conservation are representative of the ecological regions of a specified area. This has already been attempted at the scale of countries and regions. With the recent publication of the World Database of Protected Areas, quantitative analysis of representativeness at the global scale is finally feasible. We use GIS technology to overlay a map of ecological regions with a map of protected areas in order to identify biomes and geographic realms that are "under-represented" and "well represented" by protected areas. The results confirm an overemphasis on marginal land and dramatic landscapes, and the relative neglect of biomes with strong, alternative economic uses. Smaller biomes are typically better protected, as are those that have been targeted by conservation campaigns. Industrialized lifestyles and population pressure also appear to act as stimuli to protection. Our discussion suggests that analyses of patterns of representation are critical, but "over-representing" certain ecosystems—particularly those that contain high levels of biodiversity or are most threatened—should not be discounted as a conservation strategy.     

Deriving hydrological signatures from soil moisture data

Soil moisture is an important variable in hydrological studies, but has been little used for model evaluation due to its high sensitivity to local conditions. We explore the possibility to derive hydrological signatures from soil moisture data that could overcome this limitation and be helpful for model evaluation. A set of eight hydrological signatures was built, encompassing long-term to short-term time scales. These signatures were tested according to robustness, representativeness and discriminatory power, using in situ data sets from New Zealand, including national network and experimental watershed data. Field capacity, type of soil moisture distribution, and starting dates of seasonal transitions typically meet the criteria, subject to uniform sensor depths and homogeneous land uses. Durations of seasonal transitions and event-based signatures showed higher variability and lower discriminatory power. In general, long-term signatures are more robust, more representative of large areas, and have a high discriminatory power, thus showing a good potential for use in diagnostic evaluation of regional models.     

黑河遥感试验中尺度上推研究的进展与前瞻

尺度问题是遥感科学研究的一个关键科学问题,但其理论和方法的发展严重受限于稀缺的多尺度观测数据。黑河生态水文遥感试验(Hi WATER)的核心目标之一是开展多尺度观测以支持尺度转换研究。本文综述了Hi WATER中定点观测的尺度上推研究进展,内容包括:(1)尝试严格定义了空间平均、空间尺度上推、观测足迹、代表性误差、观测真值等概念;(2)介绍了Hi WATER获取的多尺度(单点—像元—区域—流域)生态水文观测数据;(3)发展了基于地统计理论的多尺度采样方法,改进了基于时间稳定性的采样方法;(4)定量评估了辐射、碳通量、土壤水分、地表温度单点观测的代表性误差,实证了异质性地表遥感产品真实性检验的不确定性主要来源于观测的时空代表性;(5)发展了定点观测的尺度上推方法,将克里格方法推广至回归克里格、面到面、不等精度观测等情形,发展了贝叶斯框架下的非线性尺度上推方法,实证了引入遥感观测作为协同信息可显著提高尺度上推的精度。总之,Hi WATER初步形成了从采样设计、多尺度观测、代表性误差的度量、尺度上推新方法到真实性检验的研究框架。     

Geo-questionnaires in urban planning: recruitment methods,participant engagement,and data quality

ABSTRACT

Recent focus on sustainable urban development and livability has increased the demand for new data sourcing techniques to capture experiences and preferences of urban dwellers. At the same time, developments of geospatial technologies and social media have enabled new types of user-generated geographic information and spatially explicit online communication. As a result, new public participation GIS methods for engaging large groups of individuals have emerged. One such method is geo-questionnaire, an online questionnaire with mapping capabilities, which has been used to elicit geographic data in variety of topics and geographical contexts. This article presents two recent cases, in which geo-questionnaires have been used in Polish cities to obtain public input on quality of life and development preferences in local land use planning. The article evaluates participant recruitment methods focusing on sample representativeness, participant engagement, and data quality. Recruitment via social media was found to increase bias towards younger population. Paper questionnaires used along the online version provided for better representation of target population’s age structure, but did not reduce bias related to educational attainment. We discuss how these issues relate to data usability and generalizability in the context of digital divide, and suggest directions for future research.