Lapse Rate Adjustments of Gridded Surface Temperature Normals in an Area of Complex Terrain: Atmospheric Reanalysis versus Statistical Up-Sampling

The applicability of elevation-regression based interpolation methods for long-term temperature normals, for example the Parameter-elevation Regressions on Independent Slopes Model (PRISM), becomes increasingly limited in data sparse, complex terrain such as that found in mountainous British Columbia (BC), Canada. Recent methods to improve both the resolution and accuracy of interpolation models have focused on the development of “up-sampling” algorithms based on local lapse rate adjustments to the original interpolated surfaces. Lapse rates can be derived from statistical models (e.g., elevation-based polynomial regression equations) or dynamical models (e.g., vertical temperature profiles from numerical weather prediction (NWP) models). This study compares a widely used statistical up-sampling algorithm, ClimateBC, with two NWP reanalysis products, the National Centers for Environmental Prediction/National Corporation for Atmospheric Research, Reanalysis 1 (NCEP1) and the more modern European Centre for Medium-range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) Reanalysis Interim (ERA-Interim). Thirty-year climate normals for maximum and minimum temperatures were calculated using statistical up-sampling and NWP lapse rate adjustments to existing PRISM-based climate normals at a subset of stations in BC. Specifically, up-sampling model evaluation was performed using 1951–80 climate normals from an independent set of 54 surface stations (1 m to 2347 m) which were not included in the PRISM interpolation or assimilated into the NWP reanalysis products. All models performed similarly for minimum temperature, which showed only a slight improvement over PRISM. For maximum temperature, ClimateBC, NCEP1 and ERA-Interim all performed significantly better than PRISM, in particular during spring and summer. The ERA-Interim reanalysis outperformed NCEP1 in almost all months. The results suggest that lapse rate adjustment algorithms based on reanalysis products will have greater potential as progress continues on developing NWP components.

R ésumé ?[Traduit par la rédaction] L'application des techniques d'interpolation par régression en fonction de l'altitude pour les normales de température à long terme, comme le Parameter-elevation Regressions on Independent Slopes Model (PRISM), devient très difficile dans les régions accidentées pour lesquelles on dispose de données insuffisantes, par exemple les secteurs montagneux de la Colombie-Britannique (C.-B.) au Canada. Les toutes dernières méthodes destinées à augmenter le degré de résolution des modèles d'interpolation et leur précision reposent sur la conception d'algorithmes d’échantillonnage vertical fondés sur l'ajustement des surfaces interpolées originales au moyen du gradient vertical local. Nous pouvons établir les gradients verticaux à partir de modèles statistiques (p. ex., des équations de régression polynomiales en fonction de l'altitude) ou de modèles dynamiques (p. ex., des profils verticaux de température à partir de modèles de prévision numérique du temps (PNT)). Dans la présente étude, nous comparons un algorithme d’échantillonnage vertical statistique communément utilisé, le programme ClimateBC, à deux produits de réanalyse de PNT, celle des National Centres for Environmental Prediction/National Corporation for Atmospheric Research Reanalysis 1 (NCEP1), et la réanalyse provisoire (ERA-Interim) du Centre européen pour les prévisions météorologiques à moyen terme (ECMWF). Les normales climatiques de trente ans pour les températures maximums et minimums ont été calculées en appliquant la méthode d’échantillonnage vertical statistique et l'ajustement du gradient obtenu par PNT aux normales climatiques établies à partir du PRISM pour un sous-ensemble de stations en Colombie-Britannique. Plus particulièrement, nous avons procédé à l’évaluation du modèle d’échantillonnage vertical en nous servant des normales climatiques (1951–1980), pour un ensemble de 54 stations d'observation en surface indépendantes (1?m à 2347?m), exclues du modèle d'interpolation PRISM et des produits de réanalyse de PNT. Pour tous les modèles, nous avons obtenu des résultats comparables pour la température minimum, soit une légère amélioration seulement par rapport au PRISM. Pour la température maximum, nous avons obtenu avec ClimateBC, NCEP1 et ERA-Interim, des résultats nettement plus probants qu'avec PRISM, notamment au printemps et en été. Les réanalyses ERA-Interim ont donné de meilleurs résultats que NCEP1 pour pratiquement tous les mois. D'après ces résultats, le potentiel des algorithmes d'ajustements des gradients verticaux de température, établis à partir de produits de réanalyse se renforcera à mesure que les composantes de PNT se développeront.     

基于ERA5再分析数据的中国邻近海域极端波高特征分析

极端波浪对沿海地区基础设施有着深远的影响,了解它们的变化规律是进行海岸带风险分析和灾害预防的基础。文章基于欧洲中期天气预报中心(European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasting,ECMWF)第五代再分析数据集(ECMWF reanalysis v5,ERA5),对中国邻近海域1979~2018年间极端波高展开时空特征分析,并统计了40 a厄尔尼诺系数,利用广义极值分布(generalized extreme value,GEV)函数探究了近40 a厄尔尼诺现象对我国海域极端波高的影响,结果显示:统计1979~2018年整个研究区域前2%极端波浪年均值在6~10 m间浮动,且整体趋势递增,在四季趋势变化中,春夏极端波高增长趋势较秋冬高,且波动明显,在年际极端波高变化趋势中有较大波动时大多伴随着厄尔尼诺或是拉尼娜现象的发生,结合厄尔尼诺现象对GEV分布中位置参数的影响分布图和极端波高年、季节际趋势变化分布图,厄尔尼诺现象影响大的地区极端波高大多呈现增长趋势,表明厄尔尼诺现象对极端波高有较高影响。     

青藏高原地区上空NCEP/NCAR再分析温度和位势高度资料与观测资料的比较分析

利用青藏高原12个探空站资料及NCEP/NCAR再分析资料,对各标准等压面上的月平均温度和位势高度资料进行了比较,结果表明:NCEP/NCAR再分析资料能够客观地反映青藏高原上空温度和位势高度多年平均的气候特征;与实际探空资料相比,在年际变化中再分析资料的温度和位势高度也具有较高的可信度;但在长期趋势变化上,再分析资料在青藏高原对流层低层存在着明显虚假的变化趋势.总之,再分析温度和位势高度资料在青藏高原气候研究中有较高的参考价值,尤其是1979年后再分析资料的质量在平流层低层得到明显的改善.     

A new version of regional ocean reanalysis for coastal waters of China and adjacent seas

A new regional ocean reanalysis over multiple decades (1958–2008) for the coastal waters of China and adjacent seas has been completed by the National Marine Data and Information Service (NMDIS) under the CORA (China Ocean ReAnalysis) project. Evaluations were performed on three aspects: (1) the improvement of general reanalysis quality; (2) eddy structures; and (3) decadal variability of sea surface height anomalies (SSHAs). Results showed that the quality of the new reanalysis has been enhanced beyond ～40% (39% for temperature, 44% for salinity) in terms of the reduction of root mean squared errors (RMSEs) for which the reanalysis values were compared to observed values in the observational space. Compared to the trial version released to public in 2009, the new reanalysis is able to reproduce more detailed eddy structures as seen in satellite and in situ observations. EOF analysis of the reanalysis SSHAs showed that the new reanalysis reconstructs the leading modes of SSHAs much better than the old version. These evaluations suggest that the new CORA regional reanalysis represents a much more useful dataset for the community of the coastal waters of China and adjacent seas.     

Mapping near-surface air temperature,pressure, relative humidity and wind speed over Mainland China with high spatiotemporal resolution

As part of a joint effort to construct an atmospheric forcing dataset for mainland China with high spatiotemporal reso- lution, a new approach is proposed to construct gridded near-surface temperature, relative humidity, wind speed and surface pressure with a resolution of 1 km× 1 km. The approach comprises two steps： （1） fit a partial thin-plate smoothing spline with orography and reanalysis data as explanatory variables to ground-based observations for estimating a trend surface; （2） apply a simple kriging procedure to the residual for trend surface correction. The proposed approach is applied to observations collected at approximately 700 stations over mainland China. The generated forcing fields are compared with the corresponding components of the National Centers for Environmental Predic- tion （NCEP） Climate Forecast System Reanalysis dataset and the Princeton meteorological forcing dataset. The comparison shows that, both within the station network and within the resolutions of the two gridded datasets, the interpolation errors of the proposed approach are markedly smaller than the two gridded datasets.     

利用CFSR资料分析近30年全球云量分布及变化

在利用MODIS卫星的云产品资料对CFSR(Climate Forecast System Reanalysis)再分析资料云产品质量进行检验评估的基础上,采用CFSR资料对1979—2009年全球总云量及低、中、高云量的平均分布及其随纬度的变化进行了分析;用经验模态分解(EMD)方法分析了近30年全球云量的变化趋势,结果表明:(1)全球近30年平均总云量约为59%,全球总云量及低云量、中云量都有明显的纬向分布特征,全球总云量有3个峰值带和3个低值带。(2)低云量的海陆分布差异较明显,陆地上的低云量明显低于海洋上的,除了两个极圈附近,南半球各纬度的低云量都比北半球相应纬度上的都要多;高云量的高值、低值中心均集中在赤道附近到南、北半球30°之间的中低纬度,并且低值中心主要分布在大洋的东部。(3)总云量的总变化趋势为增长,具体表现为随时间呈现先略减少后大幅增加趋势,其突变点大致在1993年,在1993年之后,总云量显著增多。低云量和高云量均呈现增长趋势,中云量则相反,呈减少趋势。低云量增幅最明显,接近2%,中、高云量则增减幅度较小。     

两种再分析资料间Hadley环流双层结构的差异

采用NCEP／NCAR、ECMWF两种再分析资料，分析了1979-1989年纬向平均经向风（[υ↑-]）及质量流函数（ψ↑-）的差异。结果表明，ECMWF资料存在明显的Hadley双层结构，NCEP／NCAR资料则未见明显的Hadley双层结构。此项研究结果虽不能证明Hadley双层结构是否客观存在，但表明低纬大气环流研究中资料选用直接影响研究结果。     

2000—2014年东北高纬度地区霾环境参数分析

利用探空观测资料及NCEP再分析资料,统计2000-2014年东北高纬度地区霾发生时的环境气象条件,并进行对比分析。结果表明：风垂直切变、地表风速、假相当位温垂直差、逆温强度、混合层高度、K指数、A指数、理查森数和扩散系数等指标和霾发生与维持关系密切。对于东北高纬度地区而言,500hPa与850hPa水平风垂直切变低于21m/s,地表风速在6m/s以下,理查森数大于0.3,逆温强度大于-0.9℃/100m,假相当位温垂直差大于-3K,混合层高度低于1000m,K指数和A指数低于对流天气发生时的经验阈值的情况下,大气垂直和水平方向都不利于污染物扩散,有利于霾的产生与维持。探空资料与再分析资料对应各统计指标在数值上具有较高一致性,特别是极值以外的部分,二种资料计算的指标具有显著的相关关系。对于东北高纬度地区,再分析资料可以代替探空观测资料进行环境参数分布和阈值的统计分析。     

Interannual variability of onset of the summer monsoon over India and its prediction

In this article, the interannual variability of certain dynamic and thermodynamic characteristics of various sectors in the Asian summer monsoon domain was examined during the onset phase over the south Indian peninsula (Kerala Coast). Daily average (0000 and 1200 UTC) reanalysis data sets of the National Centre for Environmental Prediction/National Centre for Atmospheric Research (NCEP/NCAR) for the period 1948–1999 were used. Based on 52 years onset date of the Indian summer monsoon, we categorized the pre-onset, onset, and post-onset periods (each an average of 5 days) to investigate the interannual variability of significant budget terms over the Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, and the Indian peninsula. A higher difference was noticed in low-level kinetic energy (850 hPa) and the vertically integrated generation of kinetic energy over the Arabian Sea from the pre-onset, onset, and post-onset periods. Also, significant changes were noticed in the net tropospheric moisture and diabatic heating over the Arabian Sea and Indian peninsula from the pre-onset to the post-onset period. It appears that attaining the magnitude of 40 m² s⁻² and then a sharp rise in kinetic energy at 850 hPa is an appropriate time to declare the onset of the summer monsoon over India. In addition to a sufficient level of net tropospheric moisture (40 mm), a minimum strength of low-level flow is needed to trigger convective activity over the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. An attempt was also made to develop a location-specific prediction of onset dates of the summer monsoon over India based on energetics and basic meteorological parameters using multivariate statistical techniques. The regression technique was developed with the data of May and June for 42 years (1948–1989) and validated with 10 years NCEP reanalysis from 1990 to 1999. It was found that the predicted onset dates from the regression model are fairly in agreement with the observed onset dates obtained from the Indian Meteorology Department.     

天津地区大气水汽含量时空分布变化

大气中的水汽是大气中重要的组成部分,水汽含量在人类日常生活中扮演重要的角色,大气水汽含量探测工作对于水汽循环、水汽输送、人工降水以及水资源评估等气象研究具有重要意义。本文对高质量的欧洲中期数值预报中心(ECMWF)再分析资料的进展进行了介绍,并且利用该资料对天津地区水汽含量的时空变化进行了分析,研究发现水汽含量的变化具有明显的季节性,受季风的影响显著。在空间分布上,天津上空水汽含量呈现从东部沿海往西部内陆地区逐步均匀减少的趋势,并且其上空的水汽含量呈现逐年增加的趋势,水汽含量的增加可能和温室效应有关。