It goes both ways: measurements of simultaneous evapotranspiration and fog droplet deposition at a montane cloud forest

Fluxes of latent heat, sensible heat, and water vapor, including turbulent deposition of fog droplets, were measured for two months in autumn 2005 within a subtropical montane cypress forest in Taiwan. The goal of the study was to determine whether significant evapotranspiration can occur during foggy conditions. Water vapor fluxes, Q_W, as determined with the Bowen Ratio method, were compared to those simultaneously measured with the eddy covariance method. The median Bowen Ratio was 1.06, and the median Q_W flux was 5 · 2 × 10^?5 kg m^?2 s^?1. The vertical gradients of temperature and specific humidity over the forest, ΔT and Δq, peaked around noon during days without fog, and were reduced during foggy conditions. For 66% of the data points, ΔT and Δq were negative, corresponding to positive (upward) fluxes of sensible heat Q_H and latent heat Q_E. A Monte Carlo simulation proved that statistically significant evapotranspiration rates, i.e., upward water vapor fluxes, occurred during fog. At the same time, deposition fluxes of fog droplets occurred. Our results show that even during fog events, significant evapotranspiration may occur. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

基于多源数据的北疆一次持续性浓雾天气过程的演变特征

利用常规高空地面、机场跑道自动观测系统(AWOS)、微波辐射计及FY4A新一代静止气象卫星等资料对2019年12月9～13日发生于北疆沿天山一带的一次持续性浓雾天气进行观测特征及演变分析，结果表明：（1）此次大雾天气过程是发生在500 hPa高空脊区控制，低层不断有暖平流东伸，地面位于蒙古冷高压后部均压场的大尺度环流背景下。（2）大雾发生前，地面明显升温有利于地表融雪、水汽蒸发，这为浓雾的形成和维持提供有利的水汽条件。浓雾维持期间，地面风速维持1 m.s-1左右的弱风场，温度露点差≤2℃，空气接近饱和，准噶尔盆地低洼地形均为浓雾维持提供有力环境条件。浓雾消散期间，风速增大，急剧降温，快速增湿，有利于雾滴凝结为米雪，使得浓雾消散。（3）Brunt-Vaisala（布伦特-维萨拉）指数能较好的反映浓雾期间边界层稳定度，并能提炼出相关稳定度阈值。浓雾期间相对湿度≥85%高度层主要集中在100米以下的贴地层，持续深厚的湿度层为浓雾形成和持续提供较好水汽条件，大雾期间强逆温层顶主要维持在600 m高度，当逆温层顶高度抬升时，有利于雾滴粒子、水汽粒子向上扩散，能见度好转。（4）FY4A卫星的多通道可见光及红外通道差图像能较好的监视白天及夜间大雾的形成、维持及生消变化，对于业务中短时临近预报有较好的帮助。     

Fog interception by non‐vascular epiphytes in tropical montane cloud forests: dependencies on gauge type and meteorological conditions

Precipitation is the most fundamental input of water for terrestrial ecosystems. Most precipitation inputs are vertical, via rain, but can be horizontal, via wind‐driven rain and snow, or, in some ecosystems such as tropical montane cloud forests (TMCFs), via fog interception. Fog interception can be particularly important in ecosystems where fog is frequently present and there are seasonal periods of lower rainfall. Epiphytes in trees are a major ecological component of TMCFs and are particularly dependent on fog interception during periods of lower rainfall because they lack access to soil water. But assessing fog interception by epiphytes remains problematic because: (i) a variety of field or laboratory methods have been used, yet comparisons of interception by epiphytes versus interception by various types of fog gauge are lacking; (ii) previous studies have not accounted for potential interactions between meteorological factors. We compared fog interception by epiphytes with two kinds of commonly used fog gauges and developed relations between fog interception and meteorological variables by conducting laboratory experiments that manipulated key fog characteristics and from field measurements of fog interception by epiphytes. Fog interception measured on epiphytes was correlated with that measured from fog gauges but was more than an order of magnitude smaller than the actual measurements from fog gauges, highlighting a key measurement issue. Our laboratory measurements spanned a broad range of liquid water content (LWC) values for fog and indicate how fog interception is sensitive to an interaction between wind speed and LWC. Based on our results, considered in concert with those from other studies, we hypothesize that fog interception is constrained when LWC is low or high, and that fog interception increases with wind speed for intermediate values of LWC—a net result of deposition, impaction, and evaporation processes—until interception begins to decrease with further increases in wind speed. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

2018年冬季海洋天气评述

2018年冬季（2018年12月—2019年2月）大气环流特征为：北半球极涡呈单极型分布,主体位于北冰洋上空偏向亚欧大陆一侧。12月,亚洲中东部中高纬环流经向度较大,利于冷空气南下;2019年1—2月,环流经向度减小,中高纬地区以纬向环流为主,冷空气势力减弱,东部及南部海区海雾过程增多。我国近海出现了17次8级以上大风过程,其中冷空气大风过程有13次,冷空气和温带气旋共同影响的大风过程有2次,冷空气与热带气旋共同影响的大风过程有1次, 温带气旋大风过程有1次。我国近海浪高在2 m以上的海浪过程有14次,2 m以上大浪的天数共计64 d。冬季共有10次比较明显的海雾过程,多在北部湾附近海域,出雾时间集中于夜间至早晨。南北海域海面温度之差为21～28 ℃,海面温度整体呈下降趋势。西北太平洋和南海有3个热带气旋活动。     

济南一次平流辐射雾的微物理结构及演变特征

受静稳天气影响,2017年1月3—6日我国华北、黄淮、长江中下游以及华南等中东部地区出现了大范围的持续性大雾天气,其中济南70 m以下的低能见度天气持续了6 h之久,最低能见度只有51 m。利用布设在山东省气象局院内的FM-120雾滴谱仪观测的微物理资料、自动气象站加密观测等资料,分析了此次浓雾天气过程的微物理结构,讨论了雾在4次"发展—减弱"过程中的主要特征,研究了雾在不同发展阶段以及爆发性增强期间的演变规律,探讨了雾的成因以及爆发性增强的原因。     

济南冬季雾微物理结构特征

2016年12月19日—2017年1月9日,受静稳天气影响,济南接连出现了10次大雾天气过程,期间最低能见度不足50 m。利用10次冬季雾过程收集的雾滴谱资料、自动气象观测站加密资料、NCEP/NCAR再分析资料以及常规气象资料,分析了济南冬季雾期间的环流背景、雾类型以及微物理结构特征等。结果表明：济南冬季雾中以小滴为主,直径8 μm以下的小滴占总数的88%以上,小滴数与数浓度具有较好的线性关系;谱型有“单峰窄谱”和“多峰宽谱”之分,“单峰窄谱”雾谱宽不超过13 μm,小雾滴所占比例很高,液态含水量与数浓度具有较好的线性关系,各微物理量较小,“多峰宽谱”雾平均谱宽在34 μm以上,液态含水量与直径12 μm以上的大滴数具有较好的线性关系,各微物理量较大;平流辐射雾的数浓度和液态含水量最大,辐射雾次之,蒸发雾最小;冬季雾具有明显的地域性特征,与南京和上海相比,济南冬季雾数浓度明显偏小;辐射雾和平流辐射雾中液态含水量偏小1～2个数量级,且谱宽明显偏窄。     

1981–2020 winter ozone trends,Erzgebirge, Central Europe

Tropospheric ozone (O₃) acts as greenhouse gas and air pollutant. Over the last 100 years, tropospheric O₃ levels increased above background by factor 2.5 in the northern hemisphere and by factor 3–4 across Europe. The gas poses a potential risk to forest ecosystems in many mountain areas. There, O₃ concentrations result from long-range transport and are influenced by removal processes (dry deposition, gas phase and cloud removal, reduction on wet aerosols). Most trend studies analyzed annual-mean concentrations. We focus on winter O₃ trends at high altitudes in the German/Czech Erzgebirge (period 1981–2020) to avoid major noise from photochemical reactions and to better explain recent O₃ behavior in Central Europe. Hourly air quality and meteorological data from four stations (Carlsfeld, CAR; Fichtelberg, FIB; Schwartenberg, SWB; Zinnwald, ZIW) were used to analyze O₃ trends. The data can explain the complex O₃ formation and removal behavior.Three distinct periods of O₃-concentration trends can be discerned: i) Until the late 1980s, characterized by relatively low O₃ concentrations. ii) Dramatic transformation in the 1990s with changing air pollution in Central Europe. Strong O₃-concentration increase at FIB is corroborated by data from CAR and ZIW. iii) Stabilization as of 1997/98, when O₃ concentrations remained at the same level for all four stations, despite general regional air pollution decrease. Key results are:a) Winter O₃ trends mainly depend on O₃ concentration of air masses transported to the stations and on the O₃-removal potential (ORP) of clouds, not on local formation processes.b) ORP differs between clouds and fog, depending on droplet chemical composition. Fog from the North Bohemian Basin showed the highest ORP due to reaction with liquid phase S(IV). However, O₃ reactions with O₂⁻ in fog droplets showed high ORP, too, depending on cloud-water pH values and NO_x concentrations.c) So-called “Bohemian fog” decreased, and with it related ORP, while that of clouds from westerly and northwesterly air masses remained nearly unchanged since 1997/98.d) Decreasing ORP in clouds and fog (= higher O₃ concentration) oppose decreasing O₃ concentrations in westerly air masses. Both effects lead to unchanged O₃ levels in the Erzgebirge since 1997/98.     

基于20年卫星遥感资料的黄海、渤海海雾分布季节特征分析

目前对海上雾分布的认识多基于沿岸测站和海上船舶、浮标观测,但这些数据非常稀少,且存在代表性和数据质量方面的问题,因此一直缺乏对海雾分布更全面、清晰的了解。卫星遥感数据空间均一、覆盖范围广、质量一致,具有对无云条件下大范围、离岸海雾监测的优势。本文通过分析算法检测出的1989-2008年黄渤海海雾及云的频数、分布百分率信息,得到了黄渤海海雾季节变化的较全面特征。除印证其他资料或研究的结论外,还发现:(1)黄海海雾频数随季节变化的幅度较渤海明显;(2)黄海、渤海海域存在冬季海雾多发时段;(3)海雾生消过程中有覆盖区变化的东传特征;(4)春夏雾季中存在黄海中部和西朝鲜湾两处海雾多发区,其中西朝鲜湾也是全年海雾最多的海域。另外,在样本充足的情况下,通过对检测出的低云、中高云覆盖百分率和海雾频数的分析统计,还能估算出黄海、渤海部分季节20年海雾发生的平均概率。     

天津雾和霾自动观测与人工观测的对比评估

为适应地面气象观测业务调整方向,提高新型自动气象站观测资料的质量及可用性,研究中对天津地区10个地面气象站1951—2014年历年2月人工观测及2014年2月自动观测和人工观测的轻雾、雾、霾现象进行对比评估。结果表明:天津地区历年2月轻雾的平均日数为10 d,雾和霾均为2 d,轻雾和霾同期出现的日数占有天气现象的7.4%,而雾和霾同期出现日数仅占0.7%;平行观测期的对比分析得到人工观测轻雾日数比自动观测多11 d,雾日数和霾日数均比自动观测少6 d,其中,轻雾和雾的判别差异集中出现在每日08:00(北京时,下同),霾则基本出现在每日08:00,14:00,17:00,20:00;通过对比自动观测和人工观测的能见度数据发现,二者相对偏差达25.1%,能见度小于15.0 km时,自动观测的能见度有60%~76%数值偏小,特别是08:00和20:00, 因此,在相对湿度满足条件的情况下,能见度的判别误差是导致自动观测与人工观测轻雾、雾、霾现象判别差异的重要原因。     

Analysis of atmospheric turbulence in the upper layers of sea fog

Atmospheric turbulence plays a vital role in the formation and dissipation of fog. However,studies of such turbulence are typically limited to observations with ultrasonic anemometers less than 100 m above ground. Thus,the turbulence characteristics of upper fog layers are poorly known. In this paper,we present 4-layers of data,measured by ultrasonic anemometers on a wind tower about 400 m above the sea surface; we use these data to characterize atmospheric turbulence atop a heavy sea fog. Large differences in turbulence during the sea fog episode were recorded. Results showed that the kinetic energy,momentum flux,and sensible heat flux of turbulence increased rapidly during the onset of fog. After onset,high turbulence was observed within the uppermost fog layer. As long as this turbulence did not exceed a critical threshold,it was crucial to enhancing the cooling rate,and maintaining the fog. Vertical momentum flux and sensible heat flux generated by this turbulence weakened wind speed and decreased air temperature during the fog. Towards the end of the fog episode,the vertical distribution of sensible heat flux reversed,contributing to a downward momentum flux in all upper layers. Spatial and temporal scales of the turbulence eddy were greater before and after the fog,than during the fog episode. Turbulence energy was greatest in upper levels,around 430 m and 450 m above mean sea level(AMSL),than in lower levels of the fog(390 m and 410 m AMSL); turbulence energy peaked along the mean wind direction. Our results show that the status of turbulence was complicated within the fog; turbulence caused fluxes of momentum and sensible heat atop the fog layer,affecting the underlying fog by decreasing or increasing average wind speed,as well as promoting or demoting air temperature stratification.