Development and application of a spatially‐distributed Arctic hydrological and thermal process model (ARHYTHM)

A process‐based, spatially distributed hydrological model was developed to quantitatively simulate the energy and mass transfer processes and their interactions within arctic regions (arctic hydrological and thermal model, ARHYTHM). The model first determines the flow direction in each element, the channel drainage network and the drainage area based upon the digital elevation data. Then it simulates various physical processes: including snow ablation, subsurface flow, overland flow and channel flow routing, soil thawing and evapotranspiration. The kinematic wave method is used for conducting overland flow and channel flow routing. The subsurface flow is simulated using the Darcian approach. The energy balance scheme was the primary approach used in energy‐related process simulations (snowmelt and evapotranspiration), although there are options to model snowmelt by the degree‐day method and evapotranspiration by the Priestley–Taylor equation. This hydrological model simulates the dynamic interactions of each of these processes and can predict spatially distributed snowmelt, soil moisture and evapotranspiration over a watershed at each time step as well as discharge in any specified channel(s). The model was applied to Imnavait watershed (about 2·2 km²) and the Upper Kuparuk River basin (about 146 km²) in northern Alaska. Simulated results of spatially distributed soil moisture content, discharge at gauging stations, snowpack ablations curves and other results yield reasonable agreement, both spatially and temporally, with available data sets such as SAR imagery‐generated soil moisture data and field measurements of snowpack ablation, and discharge data at selected points. The initial timing of simulated discharge does not compare well with the measured data during snowmelt periods mainly because the effect of snow damming on runoff was not considered in the model. Results from the application of this model demonstrate that spatially distributed models have the potential for improving our understanding of hydrology for certain settings. Finally, a critical component that led to the performance of this modelling is the coupling of the mass and energy processes. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

合成孔径雷达差分干涉测量（D-InSAR）技术在多年冻土区地表变形监测中的应用

多年冻土区地表变形严重影响着区域内生态环境和工程设施的稳定性。合成孔径雷达差分干涉测量（differential interferometric synthetic aperture radar, D-InSAR）技术作为一种新型的空间对地观测技术, 为多年冻土区地表变形监测提供了新方法。通过近20年的不断深入研究, 利用D-InSAR技术的多年冻土区地表变形监测取得了大量研究成果。首先介绍了D-InSAR技术测量地表变形的理论基础, 进而概述了D-InSAR技术在多年冻土区地表变形测量中的应用现状, 然后总结了D-InSAR测量过程中存在的关键问题及可能的解决方法。在此认识和分析的基础上, 对D-InSAR技术今后在多年冻土区地表变形监测中的发展方向进行了探讨, 以期为D-InSAR技术在多年冻土区地表变形监测中的推广应用和深入研究提供参考。     

祁连山冻土区天然气水合物地球化学迁移机理探讨

陆域冻土区天然气水合物成矿机制较为复杂,水合物横向难以对比,形成机理不清楚,急需对天然气水合物迁移机理进行研究。文章根据祁连山冻土区天然气水合物发现区钻井揭示的地质和地球化学资料以及岩芯样品分析测试结果进行了综合分析。结果显示,研究区中侏罗统和上三叠统均为较好烃源岩,天然水合物气源以热解气为主,主要由上三叠烃源岩迁移和中侏罗统木里组烃源岩扩散提供,显示了多源多期次的特点。根据地质和地球化学分析,祁连山天然气水合物的形成经历了晚侏罗世—早白垩世的气体运移与聚集、中新世中晚期—上新世整体抬升、第四纪游离气体转化成天然气水合物矿藏3个阶段,经历了"先聚集-再抬升-后成藏"等过程,是构造-气候耦合作用的结果,初步建立了祁连山冻土区天然气水合物迁移机理。     

A natural gas hydrate-oil-gas system in the Qilian Mountain permafrost area,northeast of Qinghai-Tibet Plateau

Natural gas hydrate, oil and gas were all found together in the Qilian Mountain permafrost area, northeast of Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, China. They are closely associated with each other in space, but whether they are in any genetic relations are unknown yet. In this paper, a hydrocarbon gas-generation series, gas-fluid migration series and hydrocarbon gas-accumulation series are analyzed to probe the spatial, temporal and genetic relationships among natural natural gas hydrate, oil and gas. The subsequent results show that natural gas hydrate, oil and gas actually form a natural gas hydrate-oil-gas system. Based on the Middle Jurassic and the Upper Triassic hydrocarbon gas-generation series, it is divided into four major sub-systems in the study area: (1) A conventional Upper Triassic gas-bearing sub-system with peak hydrocarbon gas-generation in the late Middle Jurassic; (2) a conventional Middle Jurassic oil-bearing sub-system with low to mature hydrocarbon gas-generation in the late Middle Jurassic; (3) a natural gas hydrate sub-system with main gas source from the Upper Triassic gas-bearing sub-system and minor gas source from the Middle Jurassic oil-bearing sub-system as well as little gas source from the Middle Jurassic coal-bed gas and the microbial gas; (4) a shallower gas sub-system with microbial alteration of the main gas source from the Upper Triassic gas-bearing sub-system. This natural gas hydrate-oil-gas system and its sub-systems are not only theoretical but also practical, and thus they will play an important role in the further exploration of natural gas hydrate, oil and gas, even other energy resources in the study area.     

Climatic and structural controls on Late-glacial and Holocene rockfall occurrence in high-elevated rock walls of the Mont Blanc massif (Western Alps)

In the Mont Blanc massif (European Western Alps), rockfalls are one of the main natural hazards for alpinists and infrastructure. Rockfall activity after the Little Ice Age is well documented. An increase in frequency during the last three decades is related to permafrost degradation caused by rising air temperatures. In order to understand whether climate exerts a long-term control on rockfall occurrence, a selection of paleo-rockfall scars was dated in the Glacier du Géant basin [>3200 m above sea level (a.s.l.)] using terrestrial cosmogenic nuclides. Rockfall occurrence was compared to different climatic and glacial proxies. This study presents 55 new samples (including replicates) and 25 previously-published ages from nine sampling sites. In total, 62 dated rockfall events display ages ranging from 0.03 ± 0.02 ka to 88.40 ± 7.60 ka. Holocene ages and their uncertainties were used to perform a Kernel density function into a continuous dataset displaying rockfall probability per 100 years. Results highlight four Holocene periods of enhanced rockfall occurrence: (i) c. 7–5.7 ka, related to the Holocene Warm Periods; (ii) c. 4.5–4 ka, related to the Sub-boreal Warm Period; (iii) c. 2.3–1.6 ka, related to the Roman Warm Period; and (iv) c. 0.9–0.3 ka, related to the Medieval Warm Period and beginning of the Little Ice Age. Laser and photogrammetric three-dimensional (3D) models of the rock walls were produced to reconstruct the detached volumes from the best-preserved rockfall scars (≤0.91 ± 0.12 ka). A structural study was carried out at the scale of the Glacier du Géant basin using aerial photographs, and at the scale of four selected rock walls using the 3D models. Two main vertical and one horizontal fracture sets were identified. They correspond respectively to alpine shear zones and veins opened-up during long-term exhumation of the Mont Blanc massif. Our study confirms that climate primarily controls rockfall occurrence, and that structural settings, coincident at both the massif and the rock wall scales, control the rock-wall shapes as well as the geometry and volume of the rockfall events. © 2020 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Integrated geophysical surveys on railroads in permafrost areas

The zones of thawed ground in the permafrost area are most dangerous from engineer-geologist effect point of view. Detection of such zones, as making forecast of their movement is the main task of engi...     

不同因素对排水沟渠水平冻胀力的影响

多年冻土地区的排水沟渠经常遭受水平冻胀力的破坏,严重影响构筑物的服役性能。根据青藏高原多年冻土区路基坡脚U型槽排水沟渠的现场试验,并通过数值计算与理论分析,分析了结构埋深、粗颗粒换填范围以及结构形式对其温度场和水平冻胀力的影响。结果表明：改变工况,对土体温度场分布的形状影响较小,仅对其大小有一定影响。不同工况下水平冻胀力均沿深度非均匀分布,最大水平冻胀力主要出现在结构中部,而其上部和下部较小,结构侧壁在1/2至1/3处易发生冻胀破坏。梯形结构所受的水平冻胀力较U型结构增大13%～15%左右,但其分布形式基本相同。因此,U型结构在降低水平冻胀力方面优于梯形结构。随着换填范围增大,排水沟渠的水平冻胀力最大值逐渐减小;对于埋深1.7 m的排水沟渠来说,其侧边的0～2.8 m是影响水平冻胀力的主要换填宽度范围,而当换填宽度超过2.8 m后,水平冻胀力几乎不再降低。     

基于冻融交界面直剪试验的冻土斜坡失稳过程研究

为了探讨多年冻土区自然斜坡失稳机制,开展了不同含水率黏土、粉土、砂土的土-冰交界面直接剪切试验和相应融土的直接剪切试验。结果表明,砂土和砂土-冰冻融交界面剪切应力-变形特性主要表现为弹性变形,且剪应力存在明显峰值;粉土、黏土及相应的冻融交界面在很小的变形范围内表现为塑性变形,且剪应力无峰值。水分对砂土活动层抗剪强度影响较弱,表现为水分增高,内摩擦角小幅降低。水分对粉黏土活动层抗剪强度影响剧烈,表现为水分增高,粉黏土黏聚力急剧减小。研究发现,冻土区斜坡失稳更易发生于细颗粒粉黏土中。相对于粉土,粉土-冰冻融交界面抵抗剪切变形的能力更强,粉土斜坡潜在滑动面更易发育在冻融交界面上层附近;相对于黏土,黏土-冰冻融交界面抵抗剪切变形的能力更弱,黏土斜坡更易在冻融交界面处发生滑动。同时,细粒土斜坡极易在达到最大融化深度前提前失稳,斜坡坡度越高,失稳时间越提前。融化期活动层水分增多导致潜在滑动面黏聚力降低是细粒土冻土斜坡失稳的最主要原因,孔隙水压对冻土斜坡具有一定影响,在稳定性评价时要考虑活动层水位的影响。     

The mechanism and verification analysis of permafrost-associated gas hydrate formation in the Qilian Mountain,Northwest China

Muri Basin in the Qilian Mountain is the only permafrost area in China where gas hydrate samples have been obtained through scientific drilling. Fracture-filling hydrate is the main type of gas hydrate found in the Qilian Mountain permafrost. Most of gas hydrate samples had been found in a thin-layer-like, flake and block group in a fracture of Jurassic mudstone and oil shale, although some pore-filling hydrate was found in porous sandstone. The mechanism for gas hydrate formation in the Qilian Mountain permafrost is as follows: gas generation from source rock was controlled by tectonic subsidence and uplift--gas migration and accumulation was controlled by fault and tight formation--gas hydrate formation and accumulation was controlled by permafrost. Some control factors for gas hydrate formation in the Qilian Mountain permafrost were analyzed and validated through numerical analysis and laboratory experiments. CSMGem was used to estimate the gas hydrate stability zone in the Qilian permafrost at a depth of 100–400 m. This method was used to analyze the gas composition of gas hydrate to determine the gas composition before gas hydrate formation. When the overlying formation of gas accumulation zone had a permeability of 0.05 × 10⁻¹⁵ m² and water saturation of more than 0.8, gas from deep source rocks was sealed up to form the gas accumulation zone. Fracture-filling hydrate was formed in the overlap area of gas hydrate stability zone and gas accumulation zone. The experimental results showed that the lithology of reservoir played a key role in controlling the occurrence and distribution of gas hydrate in the Qilian Mountain permafrost.     

南祁连盆地木里冻土区天然气水合物烃源岩特征及评价

中国地质调查局2008年在南祁连盆地木里冻土区采集到了中国陆域第一例天然气水合物实物样品,对于天然气水合物的气体来源存在不同的认识。利用新完钻3口井样品的化验分析结果,分析了中侏罗统和上三叠统烃源岩有机地球化学特征。结果表明,中侏罗统江仓组、木里组煤系地层烃源岩有机质丰度较高,TOC(总有机碳含量)大于1%的样品占78.9%;氯仿沥青"A"含量大于0.1%的占总数的72.2%;有机质类型以Ⅱ_2、Ⅱ_1型为主;镜质体反射率R_o多介于0.7%~1.2%之间;71个样品生烃潜量平均值为8.8mg/g,总体处于生烃高峰期的生油阶段或凝析油阶段,属于好、很好烃源岩,为天然气水合物主力生烃层系。上三叠统尕勒得寺组亦为煤系地层烃源岩,TOC含量大于1%的样品占76.9%;氯仿沥青"A"含量小于0.05%;有机质类型以Ⅲ、Ⅱ_1型为主;镜质体反射率Ro介于1.1%~1.77%之间;总体处于生湿气或干气阶段,但由于构造抬升影响其生烃潜量,平均值仅为0.35mg/g,当前整体生烃能力较差,为非烃源岩或较差烃源岩,对天然气水合物成藏贡献不大。