Wind velocity and sand transport on a barchan dune

We present measurements of wind velocity and sand flux performed on the windward side of a large barchan dune in Jericoacoara, northeastern Brazil. From the measured profile, we calculate the air shear stress using an analytical approximation and treat the problem of flow separation by an heuristic model. We find that the results from this approach agree well with our field data. Moreover, using the calculated shear velocity, we predict the sand flux according to well-known equilibrium relations and with a phenomenological continuum saltation model that includes saturation transients and thus allows for nonequilibrium conditions. Based on the field data and theoretical predicted results, we indicate the principal differences between saturated and nonsaturated sand flux models. Finally, we show that the measured dune moves with invariant shape and predict its velocity from our data and calculations.     

Drainage, sediment transport, and denudation rates on the Nanga Parbat Himalaya, Pakistan

The Nanga Parbat Himalaya presents some of the greatest relief on Earth, yet sediment production and denudation rates have only been sporadically addressed. We utilized field measurements and computer models to estimate bank full discharge, sediment transport, and denudation rates for the Raikot and Buldar drainage basins (north slope of Nanga Parbat) and the upper reach of the Rupal drainage basin (south slope).The overall tasks of determining stream flow conditions in such a dynamic geomorphic setting is challenging. No gage data exist for these drainage basins, and the overall character of the drainage basins (high relief, steep flow gradients, and turbulent flow conditions) does not lend itself to either ready access or complete profiling.Cross-sectional profiles were surveyed through selected reaches of these drainage basins. These data were then incorporated into software (WinXSPRO) that aids in the characterization (stage, discharge, velocity, and shear stress) of high altitude, steep mountain stream conditions.Complete field measurements of channel depths were rarely possible (except at several bridges where the middle of the channel could actually be straddled and probed) and, when coupled with velocity measurements, provided discrete points of field-measured discharge calculations. These points were then used to calibrate WinXSPRO results for the same reach and provided a confidence level for computer-generated results.Flow calculations suggest that under near bank full conditions, the upper Raikot drainage basin produces discharges of 61 cm and moves about 11,000 tons day⁻¹ (9980 tons day⁻¹) of sediment through its channel. Bank full conditions on the upper portion of the Rupal drainage basin generate discharges of 84 cm and moves only about 3800 tons day⁻¹ (3450 tons day⁻¹) of sediment. Although the upper Rupal drainage basin moves more water, the lower slope of the drainage basin (0.03) generates a much smaller shear stress (461 Pa) than does the higher slope (0.12) of the upper Raikot drainage basin (1925 Pa).Dissolved and suspended sediment loads were measured from water/sediment samples collected throughout the day and night over a period of 10 days at the height of the summer melt season but proved to be a minor variable in transport flux. Channel bed loads were measured using a pebble count method of bank material and then used to generate ratings curves of bed loads relative to discharge volumes. When coupled with discharge data and basin area, mean annual sediment yield and denudation rates for Nanga Parbat are produced. Denudation rates calculated in this fashion range from 0.2 mm year⁻¹ in the slower, more sluggish Rupal drainage basin to almost 6 mm year⁻¹ in the steeper, faster flowing Raikot and Buldar drainage basins.     

VORTEX FLOW FIELD IN A SCOUR HOLE AROUND ABUTMENTS

The three-dimensional flow field in a scour hole around different abutments under a clear water regime was experimentally measured in a laboratory flume, using the Acoustic Doppler Velocimeter (ADV). Three types of abutments used in the experiments were vertical-wall (rectangular section), 45° wing-wall (45° polygonal section) and semicircular. The three-dimensional time-averaged velocity components were detected at different vertical planes for vertical-wall abutment and azimuthal planes for wing-wall and semicircular abutments. The velocity components were also measured at different horizontal planes. In the upstream, presentations of flow field through vector plots at vertical / azimuthal and horizontal planes show the existence of a primary vortex associated with the downflow inside the scour hole. On the other hand, in the downstream, the flow field shows a reversed flow near the abutments having a subsequent recovery with a passage of flow as a part of the main flow. The data presented in this p     

Parameters affecting maximum fluid transport in large aperture fractures

We present results of laboratory experiments to study the behavior of liquids moving in unsaturated wide-aperture fractures. A 5-mm-thick glass plate cut with a 1.7-mm aperture was used as a fractured rock analog to study behavior of film and capillary droplet flow modes. Flow rates ranged between 0.6 and 6.0 ml/min. Variability in the ambient barometric pressure, resulting from weather conditions, seemed to play a role in the natural selection of flow mode. For droplet mode, constant input conditions resulted in highly variable transport properties within the fracture. The advancing meniscus exhibited a dynamic contact angle that was a function of the droplet speed and much larger than the static contact angle. Flow rate was reduced due to the larger contact angle. Analytical expressions for droplet velocity and flow capacity are presented as a function of the dynamic rather than the static contact angle.     

Explosion seismic reflections from the Earth’s core

Recent seismological studies have presented evidence for the existence of a layer with ultra-low seismic velocities at the core-mantle boundary at ca. 2900 km depth. We report high-amplitude, high-frequency, and laterally coherent seismic arrivals from three nuclear explosions in Siberia. With recording station intervals of 15 km, the seismic phases are readily correlated and show the presence of a thin, ultra-low velocity zone in a region where it was not previously reported. The duration and complexity of the arrivals are inconsistent with a simple core-mantle boundary and require a hitherto unidentified, kilometre-scale, fine structure in the ultra-low velocity zone. The observations may be explained by a ca. 7 km thick, two-layer, ultra-low velocity zone with exceptional low velocities, which indicate the presence of high percentages of melt (>15%), in particular in the lower part of the zone. Waveform variation implies lateral change in the thickness and physical properties of the ultra-low velocity zone with a wavelength of less than 100 km.     

Coupled inverse modelling of groundwater flow and mass transport and the worth of concentration data

This paper presents the extension of the self-calibrating method to the coupled inverse modelling of groundwater flow and mass transport. The method generates equally likely solutions to the inverse problem that display the variability as observed in the field and are not affected by a linearisation of the state equations. Conditioning to the state variables is measured by an objective function including, among others, the mismatch between the simulated and measured concentrations. Conditioning is achieved by minimising the objective function by gradient-based methods. The gradient contains the partial derivatives of the objective function with respect to: log conductivities, log storativities, prescribed heads at boundaries, retardation coefficients and mass sources. The derivatives of the objective function with respect to log conductivity are the most cumbersome and need the most CPU-time to be evaluated. For this reason, to compute this derivative only advective transport is considered. The gradient is calculated by the adjoint-state method. The method is demonstrated in a controlled, synthetic study, in which the worth of concentration data is analysed. It is shown that concentration data are essential to improve transport predictions and also help to improve aquifer characterisation and flow predictions, especially in the upstream part of the aquifer, even in the case that a considerable amount of other experimental data like conductivities and heads are available. Besides, conditioning to concentration data reduces the ensemble variances of estimated transmissivity, hydraulic head and concentration.     

Recent ventifact development on the central Oregon coast,western USA

The unusual location of ventifacts, on a boulder‐built jetty at the mouth of the Siuslaw River, Oregon coast, western USA, allows ventifact age and wind abrasion rates to be estimated with some precision. The jetty was built mainly between 1892–1901 and extended throughout the twentieth century. Consideration of historical shoreline position and the history of jetty construction and repair suggests the ventifacts have formed since about 1930. Morphologically the ventifacts are aligned south‐to‐north reflecting winter winds and sediment transport from the adjacent beach. Wind‐parallel grooves and ridges with sharp, sinuous crests are developed on inclined boulder surfaces on top of the jetty and reflect suspended sand transport in wind vortices. Deeply pitted surfaces on steep boulder surfaces nearest the beach reflect impact by saltating sand grains. Based on present wind regimes (1992–2000) from three regional weather stations, southerly winds above the sand transport threshold occur for 21·9–29·6 per cent of the time. Based on estimated depth of loss from boulder surfaces, wind abrasion rates are calculated to be on the order of 0·24–1·63 mm a^?1. This is the first well‐constrained field estimate of ventifact age and ventifaction rate from a modern coastal environment. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Simulation and measurement of surface shear stress over isolated and closely spaced transverse dunes in a wind tunnel

Topographic interactions generate multidirectional and unsteady air?ow that limits the application of velocity pro?le approaches for estimating sediment transport over dunes. Results are presented from a series of wind tunnel simulations using Irwin‐type surface‐mounted pressure sensors to measure shear stress variability directly at the surface over both isolated and closely spaced sharp‐crested model dunes. Findings complement existing theories on secondary air?ow effects on stoss transport dynamics and provide new information on the in?uence of lee‐side air?ow patterns on dune morphodynamics. For all speeds investigated, turbulent unsteadiness at the dune toe indicates a greater, more variable surface shear, despite a signi?cant drop in time‐averaged measurements of streamwise shear stress at this location. This effect is believed suf?cient to inhibit sediment deposition at the toe and may be responsible for documented intermittency in sand transport in the toe region. On the stoss slope, streamline compression and ?ow acceleration cause an increase in ?ow steadiness and shear stress to a maximum at the crest that is double that at the toe of the isolated dune and 60–70 per cent greater than at ?ow reattachment on the lower stoss of closely spaced dunes. Streamwise ?ow accelerations, rather than turbulence, have greater in?uence on stress generation on the stoss and this effect increases with stoss slope distance and with incident wind speed. Reversed ?ow within the separation cell generates signi?cant surface shear (30–40 per cent of maximum values) for both spacings. This supports ?eld studies that suggest reversed ?ow is competent enough to return sediment to the dune directly or in a de?ected direction. High variability in shear at reattachment indicates impact of a turbulent shear layer that, despite low values of time‐averaged streamwise stress in this region, would inhibit sediment accumulation. Downwind of reattachment, shear stress and ?ow steadiness increase within 6 h (h = dune height) of reattachment and approach upwind values by 25 h. A distance of at least 30 h is suggested for full boundary layer recovery, which is comparable to ?uvial estimates. The Irwin sensor used in this study provides a reliable means to measure skin friction force responsible for sand transport and its robust, simple, and cost‐effective design shows promise for validating these ?ndings in natural dune settings. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The response of subaqueous dunes to floods in sand and gravel bed reaches of the Dutch Rhine

Abstract The branches of the River Rhine in the Netherlands, characterized by a sand–gravel bed in the upstream part and a sand bed in the downstream part of the river system, show migrating dunes, especially during floods. In the last 20 years, these dunes have been studied extensively. High-resolution echo-sounding measurements of these dunes, made with single and multibeam equipment, were analysed for three different sections of the Rhine river system during several floods. This analysis was done to quantify the growth, decay and migration rates of the dunes during floods. In addition, the migrating dunes were used to calculate bedload transport rates with dune tracking. The results of dune growth and decay and migration rate are shown to be very different for the various sections during the various floods, and these differences are related to differences in grain size of the bed and to differences in the distribution of discharge over the main channel and the floodplain. The relations are used to show that the growth and migration rate of dunes, and the calculated bedload transport rates during the rising stage of a flood wave can be predicted from the mobility of the bed material with simple power relations.     

索马里急流的年际变化及其对半球间水汽输送和东亚夏季降水的影响

利用美国国家环境预报中心和美国国家大气科学研究中 心（NCEP/NCAR）再分析月平均气候资料以及Xie和Arkin分析的月平均降水资料（1968～199 8年），针对索马里低空急流（SMJ）的年际变化及其对东亚夏季降水的影响问题展开了分析 研究. 结果揭示，SMJ作为最主要的越赤道气流，对两个半球间水汽输送起最关键的作用， 它把水汽从冬半球输送到夏半球. 夏季SMJ的年际变化有全球范围内的环流异常与之相联系 ，特别是东亚沿岸的波列状异常分布、南亚高压以及澳大利亚以南的偶极型异常分布；它 也同春季的北印度洋等海区的海温异常有密切关系. 研究还表明，春季SMJ的年际变化对东 亚夏季降水和大气环流有显著影响，由于SMJ影响的超前性，因此它在东亚夏季气候预测上 有重要意义.