Comparative Study of the Carbon Emission Situation and Goals between China and India

As the two large developing and populous countries, China and India face the dual challenges of economic development and climate change. Both of them are active in carbon emissions reduction, while India also bears the pressure of being “benchmarked” against China. With taking China and India as the sample of a comparative analysis, and the statistical value of a long sequence as the basic analysis data, based on the detailed analysis and comparison of carbon emissions history, the carbon emissions situation of the two countries from various dimensions including economic development, energy reserves and consumption, etc. were comparatively analyzed. The carbon intensity and energy structure after achieving the objectives were measured and compared by focusing on the carbon emissions reduction targets in China and India. The comparative results show that: China’s total carbon emissions are greater than India’s, but the growth rate of emissions, per capita emissions are significantly lower than India’s, while the carbon intensity decreases significantly faster than that of India. China has taken more efforts to make commitments to carbon reduction than India. With India’s energy structure adjustment, the situation will be gradually better than that in China.     

Volcanic emissions of metals and halogens from White Island (New Zealand) and Erebus volcano (Antarctica) determined with chemical traps

Volcanic emission rates of As, Sb, Pb, Hg, Se, Cl, and F were determined at Erebus volcano, Antarctica and White Island, New Zealand, using chemical traps. The trace metal fluxes were determined by combining the species to S ratios in the solutions with SO₂ emission rates measured by correlation spectrometry at the two volcanoes. At Erebus volcano, fluxes for the metals Pb and Hg were 2.0 × 10^− 4 and 8.1 × 10^− 6 kg s^− 11, respectively. Fluxes for Cl, F, As, Sb and Se (0.35, 0.15, 2.5 × 10^− 4, 1.2 × 10^− 5, and 4.5 × 10^− 6 kg s^− 1, respectively) agreed within error limits for values determined previously by the LiOH impregnated filter method [Zreda-Gostynska, G., Kyle, P., Finnegan, D., Prestbo, K., 1997. Volcanic gas emissions from Mount Erebus and their impact on the Antarctic environment. Journal of Geophysical Research, 102(B7): 15039–15055.], demonstrating the utility of the chemical trap method. A fall in the As/S ratio from 7 × 10^− 4 in 1997/1999 to 3 × 10^− 4 in 2000 at Erebus coincided with a change in the frequency and style of eruptive activity that may have been due to injection of magma into the system. At White Island, chemical trap data indicated fluxes of Cl = 0.90, F = 0.0079, Pb = 2.7 × 10^− 4, Hg = 1.1 × 10^− 5, As = 1.3 × 10^− 4, Sb = 1.9 × 10^− 5 and Se = 1.5 × 10^− 5 kg s^− 1. Samples collected 600 m downwind of the active crater were comparable to samples collected adjacent to the main gas vent, showing that this method can still be used at some distance from a degassing vent.     

Alternative climate policy pathways in the US

Although it is likely that the political–economic coalition required for implementing a federal cap-and-trade programme for GHGs in the US is now sufficiently strong, the structural impediments that have prevented its legislative passage remain impressively durable and can be expected to continue to lay waste to congressional proposals for the foreseeable future. Indeed, given the complex history of environmental policy gridlock in Washington since the early 1980s, any expectations that a cap-and-trade programme could have been realistically achieved through the traditional legislative passage in Congress are fundamentally misplaced. Building on previous research, it is argued that – as with most other forms of environmental policy in the US over the past three decades – a national carbon market is more plausible given alternative policy pathways, which if taken are capable of circumventing the Federal Congress altogether. In particular, the interaction between litigation against the federal government and the ‘rulemaking’ authority possessed by the Executive Branch provides the potential space for the current administration to unilaterally establish a model rule for a national carbon-trading programme.

Policy relevance

This article aims to contribute to American climate policy debates by re-thinking the policy mechanisms most capable of establishing a national carbon market in the US. By taking into account the array of structural factors that have prevented the legislative passage of such a programme in federal Congress, a range of alternative policy ‘pathways’ is considered that have historically allowed progressive environmental policies to endure in Washington (despite increased Congressional gridlock over the past few decades). Two specific alternative strategies and the relationship between them are assessed: the use of litigation to impose legal obligations on federal agencies to regulate effluents, and the use of executive authority to define the nature and scope of environmental regulation. The administration's current potential to unilaterally develop a model-rule for a cap-and-trade programme under the Clean Air Act is emphasized, and the political implications of such a strategy are considered.     

NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF METHANE EMISSIONS FROM RICE PADDY FIELDS IN THE YANGTZE DELTA OF CHINA*

A numerical simulation model is presented in this paper,which comprises the processes of crop growth,soil organic carbon decomposition,and methane emissions in agroecosystems.Simulation results show that the model can simulate the main process of methane emissions well,and the correlation coefficient between the simulated values and observed data is 0.79 with 239 samples,which passed a significance test of 0.01.The average error of methane emission simulation in whole growth period is about 15%.Numerical analysis of the model indicates that the average temperature during rice growth period has much impacts on methane emissions,and the basic trend of interannual methane emissions is similar to that of average temperature.The amount of methane emissions reduces about 34.93%,when the fertilizer is used instead of manure in single rice paddy.     

Reducing fishing vessel fuel consumption and NOX emissions

There is a growing concern with the impact of marine operations on the environment. This requires reducing fuel consumption and vessel pollution during operation. On-board computers and satellite communications will enable the operator to reduce fuel consumption and NO_X emissions during vessel operations.This paper presents the results of a study on this problem and how such an on-board system could be implemented to reduce fuel consumption and engine NO_X emissions.     

GDP and employment effects of policies to close the 2020 emissions gap

Four policies might close the gap between the global GHG emissions expected for 2020 on the basis of current (2013) policies and the reduced emissions that will be needed if the long-term global temperature increase can be kept below the 2 °C internationally agreed limit. The four policies are (1) specific energy efficiency measures, (2) closure of the least-efficient coal-fired power plants, (3) minimizing methane emissions from upstream oil and gas production, and (4) accelerating the (partial) phase-out of subsidies to fossil-fuel consumption. In this article we test the hypothesis of the International Energy Agency (IEA) that these policies will not result in a loss of gross domestic product (GDP) and we estimate their employment effects using the E3MG global macro-econometric model. Using a set of scenarios we assess each policy individually and then consider the outcomes if all four policies were implemented simultaneously. We find that the policies are insufficient to close the emissions gap, with an overall emission reduction that is 30% less than that found by the IEA. World GDP is 0.5% higher in 2020, with about 6 million net jobs created by 2020 and unemployment reduced.

Policy relevance

The gap between GHG emissions expected under the Copenhagen and Cancun Agreements and that needed for emissions trajectories to have a reasonable chance of reaching the 2 °C target requires additional policies if it is to be closed. This article uses a global simulation model E3MG to analyse a set of policies proposed by the IEA to close the gap and assesses their macroeconomic effects as well as their feasibility in closing the gap. It complements the IEA assessment by estimating the GDP and employment implications separately by the different policies year by year to 2020, by major industries, and by 21 world regions.     

Certified emissions reductions and CDM limits: revenue and distributional aspects

The EU allows those installations that are subject to emissions trading to use a limited volume of certified emissions reductions (CERs), generated through the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), to cover their own GHG emissions. These CERs can be used in addition to the EU allowances (EUAs), which were primarily allocated free to installations in Phase II of the EU Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS) from 2008 to 2012. For the year 2008, the CER limits, which are differentiated by EU Member State, created substantial arbitrage rents (due to the CER-EUA spread) of approximately EU€250 million. Different options for the allocation of this rent are discussed and it is found that, according to economic theory, making the right to use CERs tradable or the regulator pre-committing to buying CERs at the level of the relevant limit reduces the inefficiencies connected to the current regulation. Furthermore, auctioning these CER usage rights shifts the rents created through the CER-EUA spread to the Member State itself. The improved design and implementation of CDM limits justifies EU policy makers intervening to correct previously competition-distorting choices.     

Contribution to the Global Warming Mitigation of Marshlands Conversion to Croplands in the Sanjiang Plain,Northeast China

Based on the estimation of greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions and carbon sequestration of the total conversion of marshlands (TMC), marshlands conversion to paddy fields (MCPFs) and marshlands conversion to uplands (MCULs), this study revealed the contribution to the global warming mitigation (CGWM) of paddy fields versus uplands converted from marshlands in the Sanjiang Plain (excluding the Muling‐Xingkai Plain on south of Wanda Mountain), Heilongjiang Province, northeast China. The results showed that the total area of MCPFs and MCULs was 504.23 × 10³ ha between 1982 and 2005. The CGWM per unit area was 45.53 t CO₂eq/ha for MCPFs and that was 23.95 t CO₂eq/ha for MCULs, with an obvious 47.40% reduction. The MCPFs and MCULs ecosystems acted as the carbon sink all of the year. As far as CGWM per unit area is concerned, MCPFs mitigated the greenhouse effect which was greater than MCULs. And it was effective that the implementation of the uplands transformed into paddy fields in Northeast China with regard to marshlands protection and croplands (including paddy fields and uplands) reclamation.     

International and national climate policies for aviation: a review

Aviation constitutes about 2.5% of all energy-related CO₂ emissions and in addition there are non-CO₂ effects. In 2016, the ICAO decided to implement a Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation (CORSIA) and in 2017 the EU decided on faster emission reductions in its Emissions Trading System (EU ETS), which since 2012 includes the aviation sector. The effects of these policies on the expected development of air travel emissions from 2017 to 2030 have been analyzed. For the sample country Sweden, the analysis shows that when emissions reductions in other sectors are attributed to the aviation sector as a result of the EU ETS and CORSIA, carbon emissions are expected to reduce by ?0.8% per year (however if non-CO₂ emissions are included in the analysis, then emissions will increase). This is much less than what is needed to achieve the 2°C target. Our analysis of potential national aviation policy instruments shows that there are legally feasible options that could mitigate emissions in addition to the EU ETS and CORSIA. Distance-based air passenger taxes are common among EU Member States and through increased ticket prices these taxes can reduce demand for air travel and thus reduce emissions. Tax on jet fuel is an option for domestic aviation and for international aviation if bilateral agreements are concluded. A quota obligation for biofuels is a third option.

Key policy insights

• Existing international climate policies for aviation will not deliver any major emission reductions.

• Policymakers who want to significantly push the aviation sector to contribute to meeting the 2°C target need to work towards putting in place tougher international policy instruments in the long term, and simultaneously implement temporary national policy instruments in the near-term.

• Distance-based air passenger taxes, carbon taxes on jet fuel and quota obligations for biofuels are available national policy options; if they are gradually increased, and harmonized with other countries, they can help to significantly reduce emissions.

     

The fluvial flux of particulate organic matter from the UK: the emission factor of soil erosion

Soil erosion has been identified as a potential global carbon sink since eroded organic matter is replaced at source and eroded material is readily buried. However, this argument has relied on poor estimates of the total fate of in‐transit particulates and could erroneously imply soil erosion could be encouraged to generate carbon stores. These previous estimates have not considered that organic matter can also be released to the atmosphere as a range of greenhouse gases, not only carbon dioxide (CO₂), but also the more powerful greenhouse gases methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O). As soil carbon lost by erosion is only replaced by uptake of CO₂, this could represent a considerable imbalance in greenhouse gas warming potential, even if it is not significant in terms of overall carbon flux. This work therefore considers the flux of particulate organic matter through UK rivers with respect to both carbon fluxes and greenhouse gas emissions. The results show that, although emissions to the atmosphere are dominated by CO₂, there are also considerable fluxes of CH₄ and N₂O. The results suggest that soil erosion is a net source of greenhouse gases with median emission factors of 5.5, 4.4 and 0.3 tonnes CO_2eq/yr for one tonne of fluvial carbon, gross carbon erosion and gross soil erosion, respectively. This study concludes that gross soil erosion would therefore only be a net sink of both carbon and greenhouse gases if all the following criteria are met: the gross soil erosion rate were very low (<91 tonnes/km²/yr); the eroded carbon were completely replaced by new soil organic matter; and if less than half of the gross erosion made it into the stream network. By establishing the emission factor for soil erosion, it becomes possible to properly account for the benefits of good soil management in minimizing losses of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere as a by‐product of soil erosion. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.