Adaptation to climate change in Africa: Challenges and opportunities identified from Ethiopia

Africa is widely held to be highly vulnerable to future climate change and Ethiopia is often cited as one of the most extreme examples. With this in mind we seek to identify entry points to integrate short- to medium-term climate risk reduction within development activities in Africa, drawing from experiences in Ethiopia. To achieve this we employ a range of data and methods. We examine the changing nature of climate risks using analysis of recent climate variability, future climate scenarios and their secondary impacts. We assess the effects of climate variability on agricultural production and national GDP. Entry points and knowledge gaps in relation to mainstreaming climate risks in Ethiopia are identified using the Government's plan for poverty reduction. We end with a case study incorporating climate risks through drought insurance within the current social protection programme in Ethiopia, which provides support to 8.3 million people.Rainfall behaviour in Ethiopia shows no marked emergent changes and future climate projections show continued warming but very mixed patterns of rainfall change. Economic analysis highlights sensitivities within the economy to large-scale drought, however, while the effects are clear in major drought years in other years the relationship is weak. For social protection fairly small positive and negative effects on the number of recipients and frequency of cash payments during drought occur under the extreme range of climate model rainfall projections (2020s).Our analysis highlights several important challenges and opportunities for addressing climate risks. Challenges primarily relate to the large uncertainties in climate projections for parts of Africa, a weak evidence base of complex, often non-deterministic, climate-society interactions and institutional issues. Opportunities relate to the potential for low-regrets measures to reduce vulnerability to current climate variability which can be integrated with relatively modest effort within a shift in Africa from a disaster-focused view of climate to a long-term perspective that emphasises livelihood security and vulnerability reduction.     

气候变化对华北地区冬小麦水分亏缺状况及生长的影响

根据多点多年气象资料、作物发育期资料和土壤水文资料,计算了未来气候变化情景下华北冬小麦主产区小麦不同发育阶段和全生育期内水分亏缺量的变化。结果表明,气温升高时小麦水分亏缺状况变差,亏缺量等值线南移,引起小麦气候适宜区范围缩小,减产额加大,产值降低,用于额外灌溉的生产费用增加。     

A framework to assess the cumulative impacts of dams on hydrological regime: A case study of the Yangtze River

Comparisons of flow time series between preimpact and postimpact periods have been widely used to determine hydrological alterations caused by reservoir operation. However, preimpact and postimpact periods might also be characterized by different climatological properties, a problem that has not been well addressed. In this study, we propose a framework to assess the cumulative impact of dams on hydrological regime over time. The impacts of the Three Gorges Dam (TGD) on the flow regime of the Yangtze River were investigated using this framework. We reconstructed the unregulated flow series to compare with the regulated flow series during the same period (2010 to 2015). Eco‐surplus and eco‐deficit and the Indicators of Hydrologic Alteration (IHA) parameters were used to examine hydrological regime change. Among 32 IHA parameters, Wilcoxon signed‐rank test and principal component analysis identified the October median flow, 1‐ and 3‐day maximum flows, 1‐day minimum flow, and rise rate as representative indicators of hydrological alterations. Eco‐surplus and eco‐deficit showed that the reservoir also changed the seasonal regime of the flows by reducing autumn flow and increasing winter flow. Changes in annual extreme flows and October flows lead to negative ecological implications downstream of the TGD. Ecological considerations should be taken into account during operation of the TGD in order to mitigate the negative effects on the fluvial ecosystem in the middle reach of Yangtze River. The framework proposed here could be a robust method to assess the cumulative impacts of reservoir operation over time.     

气候变化对水工程的影响及应对措施

气候变化将使水利工程的服役环境发生较大改变,水工混凝土作为水利工程建设最主要的建筑材料之一,其对极端气候变化较为敏感与脆弱。本文以水库大坝、大型调水工程等水利工程为对象,系统总结了部分已观测到的低温冻害、寒潮和干旱等气候条件对水利工程影响的事实。结合未来气候变化趋势及其可能的影响,从改善水工材料性能的工程措施角度,分析了在水利工程设计、施工、运行阶段可采取的应对措施,并从规划修订、预案制订、监测预报等非工程措施角度,分析了在防洪安全、水资源安全等领域可采取的减缓适应对策,以提高水工程应对气候变化的能力。     

冷空气堆积及其天气影响研究的主要进展

冷空气堆积(cold air damming,CAD)是低层冷空气受地形阻挡产生的一种中尺度天气现象,北半球通常发生在山脉的东侧,造成云量增加、温度降低以及降水类型和降水落区的改变。CAD全年都会发生,冷季常造成冻雨天气,暖季往往会触发雷暴、大风、冰雹等强对流天气。在地形作用下地转适应关系的重新调整是CAD形成的动力基础,但冷平流、绝热冷却和非绝热冷却等热力因子对CAD的形成和发展也至关重要。尽管中尺度数值模式显著提高了CAD事件的预测能力,但这些模式仍有低估CAD影响和持续时间的倾向,即便是快速更新的高分辨率中尺度模式也会低估太阳遮蔽的影响,因此,CAD的预测对研究和预报人员来说一直是个棘手的世界性难题。主要从时空分布、天气影响、形成机理和预报预测等方面对其研究历程进行了回顾。     

Linking health and productivity impacts to climate policy costs: a general equilibrium analysis

Much of the debate on global climate change has focused on direct costs of mitigation. Recently this debate has included the issue of ancillary benefits. The present analysis incorporates a linkage between air pollution and ancillary health benefits into a general equilibrium model applied to Sweden. Direct disutility and indirect health effects are modelled using concentration-response and contingent valuation data. Health benefits are compared in three scenarios for attaining the Swedish carbon dioxide target with alternative projected and harmful emission levels. Results show that the costs of climate policy could be overstated when not accounting for ancillary health benefits.     

气候变化对密云水库水资源的影响及其适应性管理对策

密云水库近30 a入库水资源量日益减少,严重影响城市供水和可持续发展,其中气候变化对水资源的影响成为最受关注的问题之一。以海河流域密云水库的水资源供应为例,研究了气候变化对入库水资源的影响。结果表明：除SRES A2情景下在2025年入库流量减少外,其他情景均表现为入库流量增加。对入库流量增加的情景,采用"零调整方案",即不采取调整措施是可以的,但由于未来北京水资源压力较大,有必要采取一些综合对策。通过多目标条件分析,为解决北京的饮用水供应问题,建议采用开源（跨河流调水）、节流（水田改旱地）及污水治理三管齐下的方案。     

雨量计密度对校准雷达估测降水的影响及单点对校准的贡献

利用新一代天气雷达基数据资料和天津三次不同类型降水天气过程的降水量资料,采用变分校准方法,以校准区域内所有雨量计校准雷达得到的估测降水场作为"真值场",对比分析14种不同密度雨量计网校准雷达估测降水的效果,并对雨量计网中单个雨量计站点对校准雷达的贡献进行试验分析。结果表明:（1）参加校准的雨量计密度较小时,雷达估测降水的误差较大,估测效果不好;随校准雨量计密度的不断加大,雷达估测降水的偏差明显减小、估测精度不断提高并逐渐趋于稳定。（2）校准不同类型降水需要的雨量计密度不同,这与降水的性质有关;当校准雷达估测降水的效果与"真值场"的相当时,所需的雨量计密度为121 km²·部^-1。（3）在雨量计校准网中任意增加降水量不为零的站点,会在增加的站点周围出现估测偏差（高估或低估）,偏差的大小与站点降水量相对于其周围雨量计平均值的大小有关、偏差的影响范围则与站点周围雨量计的分布密度有关。（4）任意增大（减小）雨量计校准网中单个站点的降水量会使雷达对站点周围降水的估计偏高（偏低）,高（低）估的程度及影响范围与站点降水量增大（减小）的多少及站点周围雨量计分布密度有关,而与降水类型及降水随时间的演变无关。     

用耦合模型模拟青弋江流域水文对气候变化的响应

用陆面模式SSiB与动态植被模型TRIFFID以及流域地形指数水文模型的耦合模型SSiB4T/TRIFFID模拟了长江下游的青弋江流域植被和水量平衡的动态过程,分析了气温和降水变化对流域径流和蒸发的影响。结果表明：（1）流域气温上升10C,径流减小6.7-9.7%;气温上升20C,径流减小11.7-17.4%;（2）降水增加5%,径流增加9.2-11.6%,降水减小5%,径流减小8.6-11.6%;（3）温度不变仅降水变化对流域蒸发影响很小,温度增加20C,流域总蒸发3-10月份增加8.0-10.7mm,其余月份增加5.4-7.1mm,1月和12月蒸发对温度增加最敏感;（4）气温上升20C,叶面积指数1月和12月增加,5-10月略有减小。降水和气温变化对青弋江流域径流影响明显且与植被类型有关,流域蒸发的变化主要受温度变化的控制。     

Climate impacts on extreme ice-jam events in Canadian rivers

Abstract

River ice jams can produce extreme flood events with major social, economic and ecological impacts throughout Canada. Ice breakup and jamming processes are briefly reviewed and shown to be governed by the flow hydrograph, the thickness and strength of the winter ice cover, and the stream morphology. These factors are directly or indirectly influenced by weather conditions which implies potential impacts of climate change and variability on the severity of ice-jamming. Relevant work has to date focused on simple measures of climatic effects, such as the timing of freeze-up and breakup, and indicates trends that are consistent with concomitant changes in air temperature. More recently, it has been found that increased incidence of mid-winter breakup events and higher freshet flows in certain parts of Canada could enhance the frequency and severity of ice jams. Possible future trends under climate warming scenarios are discussed and associated impacts identified in a general manner.