Radiative Exchange in an Urban Street Canyon

The influence of building geometry on the radiation terms ofthe surface energy balance is a principal reason for surfacetemperature differences between rural and urban areas.Methods exist to calculate the radiation balance in an urban area,but their validity across the range of urban geometries andmaterials has not been carefully considered.Here the exchange of diffuse radiation in an urban street canyon isinvestigated using a method incorporating all reflections of radiation.This exact solution is compared to two commonly used approximationsthat retain either no reflections, or just one reflection of radiation.The area-averaged net radiative flux density from the facets of the canyondecreases in magnitude monotonically as the canyon aspect ratio increases.The two approximate solutions possess unphysical differences from thismonotonic decrease for high canyon aspect ratios or low materialemissivities/high material albedos.The errors of the two approximate solutions are small for near blackbodymaterials and small canyon aspect ratios but can be an order ofmagnitude for intermediate material properties and deep street canyons.Urban street canyon models need to consider at least one reflectionof radiation and multiple reflections are desirable for full applicability.     

郑州城市空间扩展特征及其驱动因素分析

以遥感与GIS为技术支撑,对郑州市1976-2004年城市建成区面积进行了动态监测,并对郑州28 a来城市空间扩展特征和驱动因素进行了分析。结果表明,郑州市建成区从1976-2004年面积增加了5.81倍,平均每年扩展10.75 km^2。其扩展占用的土地利用类型主要是耕地,其次为农村居民点和其他建设用地,还有一些林地、水库和沼泽地。社会经济因素是建成区扩展的内在推动力,经济发展、政策和规划等是建成区扩展的主要驱动力。通过郑州建成区遥感监测,了解城市空间扩展规律,对正确处理城市扩展与占用土地的关系具有重要意义。     

城市地震灾害风险评价方法研究

风险管理研究已成为防灾减灾工作从“被动救灾”到“主动预防”转化的热门课题。本文回顾了地震灾害风险评价研究进展,指出了现有评价方法的不足。提出了基于地震小区划的城市地震危险性评价方法、基于城市用地类型的城市地震易损性评价方法以及基于专家打分法的城市防震减灾能力评价方法。最后设计了城市地震灾害风险评价流程,并给出了城市地震灾害风险区划算法。     

云南城市经济影响区空间组织演变规律

对1990-2004 年云南省城镇发展差异进行分析,发现自20 世纪90 年代以来云南省城市综合实力总体呈差异扩大的趋势,表现出小城市发展缓慢且分化不明显,少数高位城市极化,在空间呈现明显的核心-边缘倾向等特征。其后,进一步展示云南省城市经济影响区空 间演化的阶段性规律：① 20 世纪90 年代以前云南省城市经济影响区被特殊的地理环境分割 成破碎且难以整合的小型离散化的格局;② 自20 世纪90 年代以来,随着地区工业化和城市 化加速进行,交通通讯网络的发育和辐射,中小城市得以发育,伴随于城市经济影响区空间 扩张与收缩,云南省城市经济影响区逐渐从单层离散分布演变为三层嵌套结构,并不断朝更高级的结构形态演进,即云南省城市经济影响区空间呈现显著的、由小规模离散分布阶段、过渡转型阶段到嵌套复合阶段的时空演化序列。最后,针对这种时空演化序列,笔者解析出云南省城市经济影响区在不同时空条件组合下的三种空间扩展类型：单向拓展类型、多向拓展类型和邻接扩展类型。     

Quantifying uncertainty in remote sensing-based urban land-use mapping

Land-use/land-cover information constitutes an important component in the calibration of many urban growth models. Typically, the model building involves a process of historic calibration based on time series of land-use maps. Medium-resolution satellite imagery is an interesting source for obtaining data on land-use change, yet inferring information on the use of urbanised spaces from these images is a challenging task that is subject to different types of uncertainty. Quantifying and reducing the uncertainties in land-use mapping and land-use change model parameter assessment are therefore crucial to improve the reliability of urban growth models relying on these data. In this paper, a remote sensing-based land-use mapping approach is adopted, consisting of two stages: (i) estimating impervious surface cover at sub-pixel level through linear regression unmixing and (ii) inferring urban land use from urban form using metrics describing the spatial structure of the built-up area, together with address data. The focus lies on quantifying the uncertainty involved in this approach. Both stages of the land-use mapping process are subjected to Monte Carlo simulation to assess their relative contribution to and their combined impact on the uncertainty in the derived land-use maps. The robustness to uncertainty of the land-use mapping strategy is addressed by comparing the most likely land-use maps obtained from the simulation with the original land-use map, obtained without taking uncertainty into account. The approach was applied on the Brussels-Capital Region and the central part of the Flanders region (Belgium), covering the city of Antwerp, using a time series of SPOT data for 1996, 2005 and 2012. Although the most likely land-use map obtained from the simulation is very similar to the original land-use map – indicating absence of bias in the mapping process – it is shown that the errors related to the impervious surface sub-pixel fraction estimation have a strong impact on the land-use map's uncertainty. Hence, uncertainties observed in the derived land-use maps should be taken into account when using these maps as an input for modelling of urban growth.     

城市热岛效应的研究进展与展望

随着世界各国城市化的进展,城市热岛效应已经成为一个跨学科领域的问题,受到包括大气环境、区域气候、水文和生态等多学科科学家的关注。在过去半个多世纪中,城市热岛问题的研究获得了相当丰富的研究成果,通过对这些成果的综合分析,归纳出城市热岛研究中采用的3类主要方法——观测(外场试验和遥感技术)、数值模拟以及实验室仿真法。系统地回顾了城市热岛效应的研究历史,重点对与城市热岛关系最密切的城市边界层、热岛环流与复杂地形的相互作用以及能量平衡研究所取得的成果进行了总结和评述。最后对城市热岛问题未来8个可能的研究方向进行了探讨,其中,包括沿海和复杂地形附近的城市热岛问题、城市群间热岛环流的相互作用、城市化与空气污染问题、城市热岛效应对平均降水的影响、城市化对雾和闪电的影响、城市天气预报的精细化、城市气候变化预测以及城市热岛效应减缓方案的制定,并对其发展前景进行了粗略的展望。     

Gap Filling and Quality Assessment of CO2 and Water Vapour Fluxes above an Urban Area with Radial Basis Function Neural Networks

Vertical turbulent fluxes of water vapour, carbon dioxide, and sensible heat were measured from 16 August to the 28 September 2006 near the city centre of Münster in north-west Germany. In comparison to results of measurements above homogeneous ecosystem sites, the CO₂ fluxes above the urban investigation area showed more peaks and higher variances during the course of a day, probably caused by traffic and other varying, anthropogenic sources. The main goal of this study is the introduction and establishment of a new gap filling procedure using radial basis function (RBF) neural networks, which is also applicable under complex environmental conditions. We applied adapted RBF neural networks within a combined modular expert system of neural networks as an innovative approach to fill data gaps in micrometeorological flux time series. We found that RBF networks are superior to multi-layer perceptron (MLP) neural networks in the reproduction of the highly variable turbulent fluxes. In addition, we enhanced the methodology in the field of quality assessment for eddy covariance data. An RBF neural network mapping system was used to identify conditions of a turbulence regime that allows reliable quantification of turbulent fluxes through finding an acceptable minimum of the friction velocity. For the data analysed in this study, the minimum acceptable friction velocity was found to be 0.15 m s⁻¹. The obtained CO₂ fluxes, measured on a tower at 65 m a.g.l., reached average values of 12 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ and fell to nighttime minimum values of 3 μmol m ⁻² s⁻¹. Mean daily CO₂ emissions of 21 g CO₂ m⁻²d ⁻¹ were obtained during our 6-week experiment. Hence, the city centre of Münster appeared to be a significant source of CO₂. The half-hourly average values of water vapour fluxes ranged between 0.062 and 0.989 mmol m⁻² s⁻¹and showed lower variances than the simultaneously measured fluxes of CO₂.     

应用卫星资料分析苏州夏季城市热岛效应

利用苏州2004-2007年自动气象站资料以及购自中国科学院对地观测与数字地球科学中心的Landsat 5卫星(25 m分辨率)资料,分析研究苏州地区城市热岛总体特点以及分布规律,并对可能变化做一些探讨.分析认为,由于城市热岛效应,苏州地区气温呈中间高两侧低的分布特征,气温高值中心呈西北-东南走向,沿太湖及沿江地区气温相对较低;苏州城市地表温度呈明显的放射型分布,以市区中心向四周呈放射状分布.     

Flood dynamics of a concrete-lined,urban stream in Kansas City,Missouri

Brush Creek drains a 76·1 km² watershed within urban Kansas City, Missouri and eastern Kansas. A concrete-lined reach trending 6·1 km through the Plaza District of Kansas City, Missouri has been the focus for several major floods over the past ten years. Channel geometry, slope, and floodwater elevations were determined in the field for segments of the concrete-lined section of Brush Creek for a flood event that occurred on September 18, 1986. Discharge was computed by indirect methods and compared to a value determined from a rating curve established by the Water Resources Division of the U.S.G.S. Boundary shear stress, unit stream power, and average velocity were also computed in order to establish a quantitative relationship between sediment distribution, volume, and size fractions; and flow dynamics operating throughout the channel during this event. Boundary shear stress ranged from 91-96 Nm^?2, stream power was 528-557 Wm^?2, while average velocity was 5-8 ms^?1. These values were sufficient to displace concrete slabs as large as 5 m long by 4·6 m wide by 0·23 m thick weighing an estimated 12 245 kg. As the channel was sediment free and unsecured prior to the flood, the distribution of deposits and subsequent channel scour provide valuable evidence for potentially hazardous sections of this urban stream.