海洋牧场建设对生态旅游的影响研究——以三亚蜈支洲岛旅游区为例

建设海洋牧场能修复海洋生态环境、恢复海洋渔业资源,更好地促进海洋渔业的可持续发展。我国于20世纪70年代开始了海洋牧场的建设,并已经取得很大成绩,国内众多学者对海洋牧场的研究也取得了较多的成果。三亚蜈支洲岛海洋牧场是热带海岛休闲旅游型海洋牧场,通过对三亚蜈支洲岛海洋牧场的研究发现,海洋牧场的建设给旅游区带来了显著的生态效益、经济效益、社会效益,海洋牧场建设对生态旅游的开展具有明显的促进作用。     

Marine hydrocarbon source rocks of the Upper Permian Longtan Formation and their contribution to gas accumulation in the northeastern Sichuan Basin,southwest China

Identification of the main hydrocarbon source rocks of the large Puguang gas field (northeastern Sichuan Basin, southwest China) has been the subject of much discussion in recent years. A key aspect has been the lack of a comprehensive understanding of the development of hydrocarbon source rocks of the Upper Permian Longtan Formation, which had been thought to contain mainly coal seams and thick carbonate layers. In this paper, based on geological data from more than ten wells and outcrops and their related mineralogy and geochemistry, we investigated the depositional environment and main factors controlling organic matter enrichment in the Longtan Formation. We propose a model which combines information on the geological environment and biological changes over time. In the model, organic matter from prolific phytoplankton blooms was deposited in quiescent platform interior sags with rising sea-levels. During the Longtan period, the area from Bazhong to Dazhou was a platform interior sag with relatively deep water and a closed environment, which was controlled by multiple factors including syngenetic fault settling, isolation of submarine uplifts and rising sea-levels leading to water column stratification. Although the bottom water was anoxic, the phytoplankton were able to bloom in the well-lit upper euphotic zone thus giving rise to a set of sapropelic black shales and marlstones containing mostly algal organic matter with minor terrestrial contributions. As a consequence, these rocks have a high hydrocarbon generation potentials and can be classified as high-quality source rocks. The area from Bazhong to Dazhou is a center of hydrocarbon generation, being the main source of reservoired paleo-oils and presently discovered as pyrobitumen in the Puguang gas field. The identification of these source rocks is very important to guide future petroleum exploration in the northeastern Sichuan Basin.     

What makes a “successful” marine protected area? The unique context of Hawaii′s fish replenishment areas

In 1998, in order to combat the degradation of yellow tang populations on the west coast of Hawaii Island, fish replenishment areas (FRAs) were established prohibiting aquarium fishing along more than thirty percent of the coastline. Unlike other marine management approaches in Hawaii, which have largely been controversial, fraught with confusion over regulations, inadequately enforced, and lacking public support, these FRAs have been lauded as a marine conservation success, with wide-ranging support and evidence of rapid replenishment of the yellow tang population. In order to better understand the contextual factors contributing to the success of the West Hawaii FRAs, this research explores the following questions: (1) What factors documented in the literature on marine protected areas (MPAs) have been demonstrated to contribute to or inhibit MPA success internationally; (2) which of these factors do the FRAs of West Hawaii exhibit; and (3) are there additional factors that may have contributed to their wide acceptance and success? Common factors contributing to MPA success are determined through a synthesis of the literature. These include: level of community engagement, socioeconomic characteristics, ecological factors, MPA design, governance, and enforcement. The outcomes of West Hawaii′s FRAs are examined in the context of these factors. While the common factors agreed upon in the literature were key to the success of the FRAs, additional contextual factors such as the unique nature of the aquarium fishery and its social marginalization also played a vital role.     

Governance strengths and weaknesses to implement the marine strategy framework directive in European waters

The ambitious Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) has been the focus of much marine research across Europe in the pursuit of achieving Good Environmental Status in the four European Union marine regions; Baltic Sea, Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and North-east Atlantic. This research addresses the Strengths, Weakness, Opportunities and Threats (SWOT) of the current European marine governance structures and its relationship to implement the MSFD. Results of the SWOT analysis were acquired through a combination of approaches with MSFD experts and stakeholders including: 30 face-to-face interviews, an online survey with 264 stakeholder respondents and focus groups within each European marine region. The SWOT analysis concurrently identifies common strengths and weakness and key governance issues for implementing the MSFD for European marine regions. This paper forms one assessment within the governance component of the Options for Delivering Ecosystem Based Marine Management (ODEMM) project and presents timely issues that can be of benefit to national and European Union policy makers.     

Fishing the last frontier: The introduction of the marine aquarium trade and its impact on local fishing communities in Papua New Guinea

Papua New Guinea has sometimes been called the world's last frontier for relatively undamaged coral reefs and their resources. In 2007, the country joined its neighbours in the marine aquarium trade. By licensing a private company, Papua New Guinea tried an alternative approach to the introduction of this activity. Under the so-called SeaSmart Programme, over 100 fishers were trained in sustainable collection techniques and handling of organisms, until the programme was shut down in 2010, and replaced by its successor, EcoAquariums PNG. This article contains the first study on the introduction of the marine aquarium trade into Papua New Guinea. It evaluates the overall outcomes of the SeaSmart Programme, lists targeted species, and their prices. The main focus is on the local collectors, and on the impacts of this new activity on them and their communities. Benefits from collecting marine ornamentals are assessed and their contribution to household income is quantified. Perceptions on non-financial benefits of the SeaSmart Programme are also gathered. The empirical work was carried out between September 2010 and February 2011 in the Central Province of Papua New Guinea. A total of 199 fishers including 44 aquarium fishers were interviewed in eight different communities in the Central Province of Papua New Guinea. The results show that marine aquarium fishing does provide benefits to local resource collectors, but also that this “sustainable” way of collecting of marine ornamentals might lead to some depletion.     

Sustaining marine life beyond boundaries: Options for an implementing agreement for marine biodiversity beyond national jurisdiction under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea

For nearly a decade, governments have been discussing the need to improve efforts to conserve and sustainably use marine biodiversity in areas beyond national jurisdiction (ABNJ). Support for a new international agreement under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) – an Implementing Agreement – on the conservation and sustainable use of marine biodiversity in ABNJ has been growing. In June 2012, at the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, States agreed to take a decision on the development of an international instrument under UNCLOS before the end of the 69th session of the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA), which runs from September 2014 to August 2015. In follow-up to this commitment, it was agreed to consider the “scope, parameters and feasibility” of this instrument. To inform these international discussions, this article highlights some potential options for the content of a new UNCLOS Implementing Agreement. It first reviews the history of UN discussions, and then elaborates on options to address key elements identified as priorities for States in 2011: marine genetic resources, including the sharing of benefits, area-based management tools, including marine protected areas, environmental impact assessments, capacity-building and the transfer of marine technology. It addresses cross-cutting issues such as the governing principles, institutional structure as well as on other critical points such as High Seas fishing and flag State responsibilities. The article concludes with suggestions on possible next steps in order to succeed in the negotiations for an agreement.     

Species distribution modelling to support marine conservation planning: The next steps

Species distribution models (SDMs) offer great potential for inclusion into the toolbox of today's marine environmental manager, especially with regard to marine conservation and planning. The application of SDMs in the marine environment over recent years has been varied but there are still relatively few examples in comparison with terrestrial application, and this is especially true in deep-sea marine ecosystems. This short article builds upon two recent review articles concerning the application of species distribution modelling studies in the marine realm, offering additional practical considerations for discussion. Recommendations for progressing the improved application of SDMs to support marine conservation planning are given, including combining model outputs with other data layers, metadata standards and model error. SDMs have both an urgent and long term contribution to make to marine conservation planning globally, and it is hoped that this article, in combination with developing research on marine SDMs, will contribute to some much needed discussion and inform best practice and new research to enable these models to be of greater use to marine managers.     

Can management effort be predicted for marine protected areas? New considerations for network design

This study examined the level of management complexity (simultaneously occurring licensed human activities) within the currently designated Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) in Scottish waters and through modelling and statistical analysis determined which variables play an important role in defining the level of management effort required for each MPA. This study utilised surveyed distribution data for Priority Marine Features and modelled distribution data showing potential “Most Suitable” Priority Marine Feature habitat through the species distribution model, Maxent. Prediction indicators were developed through Spearman׳s Rank coefficients and a linear regression model. Results showed that, (1) there was a significant negative correlation between the management complexity score within 5 km of a MPA and the number of casework events (defined as any work or statutory consultation associated with an MPA, such as planning applications, discharges or new fisheries); and (2) a significant positive correlation between the number of casework events and location, number of features, and the type of features and most suitable scores. Calculations showed that Lochs Duich, Long and Alsh, Loch Sunart, Loch Sween and Loch Creran may potentially require most effort to manage once they are designated as MPAs. This study showed that it is possible to evaluate options within an MPA network to achieve cost effective options for the biodiversity and socio-economic objectives of MPA networks and that some MPAs are likely to be more efficient than others in terms of management time.     

Multilateralism in the Straits of Malacca and Singapore

This paper analyzes International Maritime Organization (IMO) involvement in maritime cooperation regime in the Straits of Malacca and Singapore through multilateralism. It begins by introducing the maritime cooperation regime prior to 2001, which was mainly trilateral in nature through Tripartite Technical Expert Group on the Safety of Navigation (TTEG). Although TTEG managed to increase the level of safety of navigation in the Straits of Malacca and Singapore through the implementation of the Traffic Separation Scheme (TSS) in 1981 and Mandatory Ship Reporting System (STRAITREP) in 1998, such cooperation was beset by financial strain and conflict of interests. Subsequently, there was a change in the cooperation regime after 9/11 incident. This paper identifies that the change was contributed by the IMO through a methodology called multilateralism. Three important principles were adopted by IMO in implementing multilateralism in the Straits of Malacca and Singapore, namely generalized principles of conduct (respect for sovereignty and compliance with burden sharing principle under Article 43 of UNCLOS 1982), diffuse reciprocity, and indivisibility. This paper concludes that multilateralism by IMO has transformed trilateral cooperation into multilateral cooperation in the Straits of Malacca, combining state actors (littoral states and user states) and non-state actors (non-governmental organizations and international shipping industries).     

The maintenance costs of marine natural capital: A case study from the initial assessment of the Marine Strategy Framework Directive in France

There are two ways of assessing the costs of environmental degradation: as the costs associated with the loss of benefits resulting from the degradation of natural capital, and as the maintenance costs required to compensate for the actual or potential degradation of natural capital. The first of these methods is based on the Total Economic Value (TEV) of benefits forgone because of the depletion of ecosystem services delivered by marine biodiversity. The second method is based on the costs required to maintain a good state of marine biodiversity, one which makes it possible to deliver ecosystem services.This paper gives an illustration of this second approach. It details how these maintenance costs have been calculated in the initial assessment of the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) in France. It addresses nine problem areas – corresponding to nine sources of environmental degradation – from non-native invasive species to oil spills. It gives a total figure for these degradation costs (around 2 billion Euros). The results are compared with those of other Member States who have taken similar approaches in the context of the MSFD. One key conclusion is that it is not really possible to make meaningful comparisons at this stage, since the methods of data collection and the nature of the costs are very different. The need to develop such assessments in a standardised way is noted.