Correcting wind‐induced bias in solid precipitation measurements in case of limited and uncertain data

Automatic precipitation gauges tend to underestimate solid precipitation in the presence of wind. Loss as a function of wind speed is typically evaluated by comparing the gauge with a more accurate measurement made using a double‐fence intercomparison reference gauge (DFIR). For small precipitation events, small errors in the observations can induce large errors in the ‘catch’ ratio, i.e. the ratio of the automatic gauge measurement to the DFIR observation. For this reason, precipitation events of less than 3 mm are typically discarded before performing the regression analysis. This can mean discarding more than 90% of the observations. This paper shows how the method of weighted least squares can be used to perform a regression analysis that can take into account the whole sample to provide a more accurate estimation of the relationship between the catch ratio and the wind speed. This methodology is then used to obtain an adjustment curve for a shielded Geonor T‐200B precipitation gauge in Northern Québec. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and Her Majesty the Queen in right of Canada.     

Hydrologic history of the Mississippi and Lower Missouri Rivers based upon a refined specific‐gauge approach

A refined specific‐gauge approach was developed to quantify changes over time in hydrological response on 3260 km of the Mississippi River system using long‐term data observed at 67 hydrologic measurement stations. Of these stations, 49 were unrated (stage‐only) stations, for which over 2 000 000 ‘synthetic discharges’ were generated based on measured discharge values at nearby rated stations. The addition of these synthetic discharges nearly tripled the number of stations in the study area for which specific‐gauge analysis could be performed. In order to maintain spatial homogeneity across such a broad study area, discharges were normalized to multiples of mean daily flow (MDF). Specific‐gauge analysis calculates stage changes over time for invariant discharge conditions. Two discharges were analysed: low‐flow and flood conditions at each station. In order to avoid the large errors associated with extrapolation of annual rating curves, a new ‘enhanced interpolation’ technique was developed that calculates continuous specific‐stage time series, even for rare discharges. Thus enhanced, specific‐gauge analysis is a useful reconnaissance tool for detecting geomorphic and hydrologic trends over time. Results show that on the Middle Mississippi River and Lower Missouri River, flood stages increased at all stations in spite of widespread incision of the river bed. On the Lower Mississippi River, both low‐flow and flood stages decreased, mainly the result of artificial meander cutoffs in the late 1920s and 1930s, except downstream of Natchez, MS, where net aggradation was observed. On the Upper Mississippi River, the specific‐gauge trends were dominated by emplacement of navigational dams and impoundment of slackwater pools. On all four river reaches, these results document hydrologic responses to the different engineering toolkits used on the different portions of the Mississippi River system during the past 75–150 years. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Geocentric sea-level trend estimates from GPS analyses at relevant tide gauges world-wide

The problem of correcting the tide gauge records for the vertical land motion upon which the gauges are settled has only been partially solved. At best, the analyses so far have included model corrections for one of the many processes that can affect the land stability, namely the Glacial-Isostatic Adjustment (GIA). An alternative approach is to measure (rather than to model) the rates of vertical land motion at the tide gauges by means of space geodesy. A dedicated GPS processing strategy is implemented to correct the tide gauges records, and thus to obtain a GPS-corrected set of ‘absolute’ or geocentric sea-level trends. The results show a reduced dispersion of the estimated sea-level trends after application of the GPS corrections. They reveal that the reference frame implementation is now achieved within the millimetre accuracy on a weekly basis. Regardless of the application, whether local or global, we have shown that GPS data analysis has reached the maturity to provide useful information to separate land motion from oceanic processes recorded by the tide gauges or to correct these latter. For comparison purposes, we computed the global average of sea-level change according to Douglas [Douglas, B.C., 2001. Sea level change in the era of the recording tide gauge. Int. Geophys. Ser., 75, pp. 37–64.] rules, whose estimate is 1.84 ± 0.35 mm/yr after correction for the GIA effect [Peltier, W.R., 2001. Global glacial isostatic adjustment and modern instrumental records of relative sea level history. Int. Geophys. Ser., 75, pp. 65–95.]. We obtain a value of 1.31 ± 0.30 mm/yr, a value which appears to resolve the ‘sea level enigma’ [Munk, W., 2002. Twentieth century sea level: an enigma. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 99(10), pp. 6550–6555].     

FRYBERGER输沙势计算方法及其估算值偏差分析——以塔克拉玛干沙漠为例

以塔克拉玛干沙漠地区2007年5个观测站及策勒站2007-2013年逐时观测数据为例,详细介绍了FRYBERGER输沙势计算方法和步骤,并对输沙势含义和易混淆的问题进行了解释说明。基于输沙势公式定义输沙势基准值,通过比较FRYBERGER输沙势估算值与基准值之间的差异,分析了不同观测点之间年均输沙势及其各风级输沙势分量的估算偏差。结果表明：（1）风速观测值的平均时距愈短,风速脉动性作用愈显著,导致输沙势计算值偏大。（2）输沙势的贡献率主要集中于I、II风级,其分布形态不同于起沙风频数分布。（3）FRYBERGER方法估算各测站年均输沙势时,采用FRYBERGER风速中间值产生的估算偏差最小。（4）输沙势估算偏差具有区域和年际性变化（策勒站为例）。（5）各风级风速代表值对输沙势分量的估算偏差产生影响,其最佳组合随观测点和年份而变化;采用最佳组合可有效减小输沙势估算偏差。     

数字化台网中定位子台网选取对定位结果的影响

选取山西及邻区不同区域的33个地震事件,通过分析"定位子台网"分布对地震定位精度的影响,研究"定位子台网"的选取。分区域分别探讨两种台站分布情况下的定位偏差、水平误差、拟合残差随空隙角、近台距离、远台距离的变化,以及定位偏差与拟合残差的关系。结果显示,速报时选取9~12个台站,且台站分布相对合理的"定位子台网"参加定位结果比较好,使用水平误差估计定位结果的效果较理想。     

吉林地震台网与中国地震台网测定东北地区深源地震震级偏差研究

选用吉林地震台网正式运行以来记录的18次东北地区mb (mB)≥4.0深源地震资料,以中国地震台网地震目录给出的震级为标准震级,进行震级偏差统计分析,得出震级校正值.分析震级差异形成的原因,为吉林地震台网测定东北深源地震震级偏差校正提供参考.     

青海数字测震台网速报震级与量规函数的初步研究

对2010年至2012年青海测震台网速报地震震级重新量取,从震级偏差频次分布、量规函数、对单台震级的影响上作了定量统计和分析,给出了量规函数校正值.     

Sea level time series and ocean tide analysis from multipath signals at five GPS sites in different parts of the world

We present sea level observations derived from the analysis of signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) data recorded by five coastal GPS stations. These stations are located in different regions around the world, both in the northern and in the southern hemisphere, in different multipath environments, from rural coastal areas to busy harbors, and experience different tidal ranges.The recorded SNR data show periodic variations that originate from multipath, i.e. the interference of direct and reflected signals. The general assumption is that for satellite arcs facing the open sea, the rapid SNR variations are due to reflections off the sea surface. The SNR data recorded from these azimuth intervals were analyzed by spectral analysis with two methods: a standard analysis method assuming a static sea level during a satellite arc and an extended analysis method assuming a time dependent sea level during a satellite arc.The GPS-derived sea level results are compared to sea level records from co-located traditional tide gauges, both in the time and in the frequency domain. The sea level time series are highly correlated with correlation coefficients to the order of 0.89–0.99. The root-mean-square (RMS) difference is 6.2 cm for the station with the lowest tidal range of 165 cm and 43 cm for the station with the highest tidal range of 772 cm. The relative accuracy, defined as the ratio of RMS and tidal range, is between 2.4% and 10.0% for all stations.Comparing the standard analysis method and the extended analysis method, the results based on the extended analysis method agree better with the independent tide gauge records for the stations with a high tidal range. For the station with the highest tidal range (772 cm), the RMS is reduced by 47% when using the extended analysis method. Furthermore, the results also indicate that the standard analysis method, assuming a static sea level, can be used for stations with a tidal range of up to about 270 cm, without performing significantly worse than the extended analysis method.Tidal amplitudes and phases are derived by harmonic analysis of the sea level records. Again, a high level of agreement is observed between the tide gauge and the GPS-derived results. Comparing the GPS-derived results, the results based on the extended analysis method show a higher degree of agreement with the traditional tide gauge results for stations with larger tidal ranges. Spectral analysis of the residuals after the harmonic analysis reveals remaining signal power at multiples of the draconitic day. This indicates that the observed SNR data are to some level disturbed by additional multipath signals, in particular for GPS stations that are located in harbors.     

复杂地形对计算地表太阳短波辐射的影响

首先利用数字高程数据(DEM)、大气辐射传输模式6S以及野外观测资料计算了复杂地形(青藏高原)上地表入射太阳辐射,然后计算不考虑地形产生的地表辐射的计算误差,对误差进行归一化后得到相对辐射误差.结果显示,相对辐射误差的标准差(即相对地表辐射计算误差绝对值的统计平均值) Se随太阳天顶角的增加呈指数增长,随高度标准差的增加几乎呈线性增长,随数字高程数据的分辨率(或卫星资料的分辨率)降低而降低.利用分步拟合方法拟合了Se随太阳天顶角、高度标准差和数字高程分辨率的变化.利用拟合方程可以计算任意地形条件下,不同分辨率的卫星(或数字高程)资料在不同太阳天顶角情况下,不考虑地形复杂性产生的平均地表入射太阳辐射的计算误差,结果表明,使用中分辨率的卫星(如MODIS)资料计算地表太阳净辐射时,需要考虑地形复杂性.     

大连地震台面波震级偏差分析与校正

中国地震台网中心提供了一个试算的大连地震台面波震级台基校正模型。基于该模型,我们对1985年至2003年大连地震台记录的共计1357次地震进行了面波震级台基校正试算,按照不同震中距、不同震级、不同方位角分别进行了讨论,得到大多数情况下大连地震台单台实测面波震级小于国家台网面波震级的结论。