Microstructural characteristics of the Whitby Mudstone Formation (UK)

When trying to improve gas productivity from unconventional sources a first aim is to understand gas storage and gas flow potential through the rock by investigating the microstructure, mineralogy and matrix porosity of unfractured shale. The porosity and mineralogy of the Mulgrave Shale member of the Whitby Mudstone Formation (UK) were characterized using a combination of microscopy, X-ray diffraction and gas adsorption methods on samples collected from outcrops. The Whitby Mudstone is an analogue for the Dutch Posidonia Shale which is a possible unconventional source for gas. The Mulgrave shale member of the Whitby Mudstone Formation can microstructurally be subdivided into a fossil rich (>15%) upper half and a sub-mm mineralogically laminated lower half. All clasts are embedded within a fine-grained matrix (all grains < 2 μm) implying that any possible flow of gas will depend on the porosity and the pore network present within this matrix. The visible SEM porosity (pore diameter > 100 nm) is in the order of 0.5–2.5% and shows a non-connected pore network in 2D. Gas adsorption (N2, Ar, He) porosity (pore diameters down to 2 nm) has been measured to be 0.3–7%. Overall more than 40% of the visible porosity is present within the matrix. Comparing the Whitby Mudstone Formation to other (producing) gas shales shows that the rock plots in the low porosity and high clay mineral content range, which could imply that Whitby Mudstone shales could be less favourable to mechanical fracturing than other gas shales. Estimated permeability indicates values in the micro-to nano-darcy range.     

粉色水晶内针状包裹体的成分与分布特征研究

粉色水晶内部的针状包裹体常被认为是三组呈三方对称的金红石或蓝线石,至今未有定论。本文选取含有针状包裹体的4颗星光粉晶,利用宝石学显微镜、激光拉曼光谱仪及紫外可见分光光度计对样品进行观察与测试,以确定包裹体的分布特征及矿物种类。无损拉曼测试发现包裹体的特征振动峰949 cm-1、999 cm-1与蓝线石标准峰相匹配,可确定针状包裹体为蓝线石或与其极为相近的矿物。放大检查发现,包裹体直径约0.5μm,长度可达毫米级,近定向分布,整体上呈汇聚状,在某些位置可粗略分为三组,同组针状包裹体近似平行分布。造成六射星光的三组蓝线石立体相交,未观察到明显的三方对称关系,与水晶的结晶习性无直接关系,故认为蓝线石为先成包裹体,在水晶的生长过程中被捕获。紫外可见分光光谱仅显示粉色蓝线石的特征吸收,表明大量的粉色蓝线石包裹体对粉色水晶的粉色有一定贡献。     

Inter-comparison of remote sensing platforms for height estimation of mango and avocado tree crowns

To support the adoption of precision agricultural practices in horticultural tree crops, prior research has investigated the relationship between crop vigour (height, canopy density, health) as measured by remote sensing technologies, to fruit quality, yield and pruning requirements. However, few studies have compared the accuracy of different remote sensing technologies for the estimation of tree height. In this study, we evaluated the accuracy, flexibility, aerial coverage and limitations of five techniques to measure the height of two types of horticultural tree crops, mango and avocado trees. Canopy height estimates from Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS) were used as a reference dataset against height estimates from Airborne Laser Scanning (ALS) data, WorldView-3 (WV-3) stereo imagery, Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) based RGB and multi-spectral imagery, and field measurements. Overall, imagery obtained from the UAV platform were found to provide tree height measurement comparable to that from the TLS (R² = 0.89, RMSE = 0.19 m and rRMSE = 5.37 % for mango trees; R² = 0.81, RMSE = 0.42 m and rRMSE = 4.75 % for avocado trees), although coverage area is limited to 1–10 km² due to battery life and line-of-sight flight regulations. The ALS data also achieved reasonable accuracy for both mango and avocado trees (R² = 0.67, RMSE = 0.24 m and rRMSE = 7.39 % for mango trees; R² = 0.63, RMSE = 0.43 m and rRMSE = 5.04 % for avocado trees), providing both optimal point density and flight altitude, and therefore offers an effective platform for large areas (10 km²–100 km²). However, cost and availability of ALS data is a consideration. WV-3 stereo imagery produced the lowest accuracies for both tree crops (R² = 0.50, RMSE = 0.84 m and rRMSE = 32.64 % for mango trees; R² = 0.45, RMSE = 0.74 m and rRMSE = 8.51 % for avocado trees) when compared to other remote sensing platforms, but may still present a viable option due to cost and commercial availability when large area coverage is required. This research provides industries and growers with valuable information on how to select the most appropriate approach and the optimal parameters for each remote sensing platform to assess canopy height for mango and avocado trees.     

The effect of leaf-on and leaf-off forest canopy conditions on LiDAR derived estimations of forest structural diversity

Forest structural diversity metrics describing diversity in tree size and crown shape within forest stands can be used as indicators of biodiversity. These diversity metrics can be generated using airborne laser scanning (LiDAR) data to provide a rapid and cost effective alternative to ground-based inspection. Measures of tree height derived from LiDAR can be significantly affected by the canopy conditions at the time of data collection, in particular whether the canopy is under leaf-on or leaf-off conditions, but there have been no studies of the effects on structural diversity metrics. The aim of this research is to assess whether leaf-on/leaf-off changes in canopy conditions during LiDAR data collection affect the accuracy of calculated forest structural diversity metrics. We undertook a quantitative analysis of LiDAR ground detection and return height, and return height diversity from two airborne laser scanning surveys collected under leaf-on and leaf-off conditions to assess initial dataset differences. LiDAR data were then regressed against field-derived tree size diversity measurements using diversity metrics from each LiDAR dataset in isolation and, where appropriate, a mixture of the two. Models utilising leaf-off LiDAR diversity variables described DBH diversity, crown length diversity and crown width diversity more successfully than leaf-on (leaf-on models resulted in R² values of 0.66, 0.38 and 0.16, respectively, and leaf-off models 0.67, 0.37 and 0.23, respectively). When LiDAR datasets were combined into one model to describe tree height diversity and DBH diversity the models described 75% and 69% of the variance (R² of 0.75 for tree height diversity and 0.69 for DBH diversity). The results suggest that tree height diversity models derived from airborne LiDAR, collected (and where appropriate combined) under any seasonal conditions, can be used to differentiate between simple single and diverse multiple storey forest structure with confidence.     

地月系L_2点中继星激光测距成功率的估算

为了模拟位于地月系L2点的中继星"鹊桥"与月球的位置关系,进而估算中继星激光测距的成功率,按照轨道周期约为14天的要求对中继星所在的晕轨道进行计算,建立了一个综合考虑望远镜抖动、大气抖动和预报轨道横向偏离的模型。从数值上给出了一条轨道周期为14. 78天,X方向(地月连线方向)振幅为12 493 km,Y方向为34 596 km,Z方向(垂直于地月轨道平面方向)为11 916 km的周期轨道。由于晕轨道的最小振幅远大于月球遮挡的临界振幅4 000 km,因此月球对中继星不存在遮挡问题。基于建立的测距成功率模型,根据昆明站(国际编号:7820)的激光测距系统对运行在该轨道上的中继星进行测距成功率分析,结果表明:测距成功率随着中继星横向轨道标准差的增大呈快速降低的趋势。对于中继星到测站的平均距离而言,当中继星没有横向偏离时,探测器产生的光电子数为0. 151,成功率为14. 07%;横向偏离2 km时,光电子数降为0. 035,成功率降为3. 46%。对比最近距离与最远距离的情况,无横向偏离的情况下,探测器产生的光电子数从0. 174降为0. 139,成功率从16. 01%降为13. 02%。该计算结果可为云南天文台1. 2 m望远镜实现中继星激光测距提供参考。     

检定场的机载激光雷达精度评价方法

为了对机载激光雷达测量精度进行科学地评价,保障数据成果质量,满足新型仪器装备计量检测的需要,该文基于空对地检定场圆形标志点,利用平均值法和最小外包圆法对机载激光雷达的平面精度和高程精度进行评价研究。结果表明:针对低空机载激光雷达可以获取高密度的地面点云,可以利用轮廓突出且特殊形状的控制点进行三维精度评价;利用平均值法和最小外包圆法均可以对机载激光雷达进行快速、有效地三维精度评价。     

Accuracy assessment of digital elevation models by means of robust statistical methods

Measures for the accuracy assessment of Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) are discussed and characteristics of DEMs derived from laser scanning and automated photogrammetry are presented. Such DEMs are very dense and relatively accurate in open terrain. Built-up and wooded areas, however, need automated filtering and classification in order to generate terrain (bare earth) data when Digital Terrain Models (DTMs) have to be produced. Automated processing of the raw data is not always successful. Systematic errors and many outliers at both methods (laser scanning and digital photogrammetry) may therefore be present in the data sets. We discuss requirements for the reference data with respect to accuracy and propose robust statistical methods as accuracy measures. Their use is illustrated by application at four practical examples. It is concluded that measures such as median, normalized median absolute deviation, and sample quantiles should be used in the accuracy assessment of such DEMs. Furthermore, the question is discussed how large a sample size is needed in order to obtain sufficiently precise estimates of the new accuracy measures and relevant formulae are presented.     

Distinct activity phases during the recent geologic history of a Gulf of Mexico mud volcano

Laser line scan imaging and chirp sub-bottom profiling were used to detail the morphology of a submarine mud volcano and brine-filled crater at 652 m water depth in the northern Gulf of Mexico. The mud volcano has a relief of 6 m and a basal diameter of about 80 m. The feature comprises a central, brine-filled crater (253 m²) surrounded by a continuous bed of methanotrophic mussels (Bathymodiolus childressi) covering 434 m² and a patchy bed covering an additional 214 m² of the periphery. The brine pool was mostly <2 m deep, but there were two holes of >28 m and 12 m deep, respectively at the northern end of the pool which emitted continual streams of small clear bubbles. Sub-bottom profiles indicated three distinct strata beneath the present surface of the mud volcano. Integration of 17 profiles shows that the mud volcano has been built in at least three successive stages: the lowest stage deposited 35,400 m³, while the middle and upper stages deposited 7700 and 20,400 m³, respectively. Piston cores were taken at the northern edge of the mussel bed and a site ∼100 m southwest of the pool. Mussel and lucinid shells were recovered from the closer core, lucinid shells from the distant core. A mussel shell from 3.4 m sub-bottom had a Δ¹⁴C age of 16.2 ka. Mixture of modern carbon with “carbon dead” reservoir material would produce actual ages ∼2 ka less than the radiocarbon ages.     

CLSM技术应用于化石硅藻微构造的尝试研究

首次采用激光扫描共聚焦显微系统(Confocal Laser Scanaing Microsystem)的新方法对西藏化石硅藻进行了微构造的尝试研究,通过对标本不同层面的系列扫描和三维重组立体图像的观察,揭示了采自西藏阿里地区和山南地区湖相沉积剖面的化石硅藻的微构造及形态特征,发现了某些对硅藻分类、示相特征的新标识,并在CLSM技术的应用方面获得了新的认识.     

GRACE和SLR观测的地球动力学扁率最大熵谱及小波相关分析

卫星重力测量技术的实现为测定地球动力学扁率提供了新的方式和途径,GRACE卫星是目前最新的重力测量卫星,据其恢复的低阶重力场较以往精度得到大大提高,然而其观测地球动力学扁率（二阶项）却与卫星激光测距（SLR）结果相差较大.本文采用最大熵谱和小波分析方法对GRACE和SLR观测的地球动力学扁率时间序列信号进行定量比较分析,结果表明：GRACE观测的地球动力学扁率年际周期变化振幅仅为SLR观测结果的25%,并且目前GRACE观测的地球动力学扁率数据中含有系统输入信息和相位差,但前者较后者包含有较强的短周期（2～6月）信息.造成这种差异的主要原因可能来自于GRACE与SLR全球观测数据时空分布不同.