The hierarchical tessellation model and its use in spatial analysis

The hierarchid tessellation model belongs to a class of spatial data models based on the recursive decomposition of space. The quadtree is one such tessellation and is characterized by square cells and a 1:4 decomposition ratio. To relax these constraints in the tessellation, a generalized hierarchical tessellation data model, called Adaptive Recursive Tessellations (ART), has been proposed. ART increases flexibility in the tessellation by the use of rectangular cells and variable decomposition ratios. In ART, users can specify cell sizes which are intuitively meaningful to their applications, or which can reflect the scales of data. ART is implemented in a data structure called Adaptive Recursive Run-Encoding (ARRE), which is a variant of two-dimensional run-encoding whose running path can vary with the different tessellation structures incorporated in an ART model. Given the recognition of the benefits of implementing statistical spatial analysis in GIS, the use of hierarchical tessellation models such as ART in spatial analysis is discussed. Three examples are introduced to show how ART can: (1) be applied to solve the quadrat size problem in quadrat analysis of point patterns; (2) act as the data model in the variable resolution block kriging technique for geostatistical data to reduce variation in kriging error; and (3) facilitate the evaluation of spatial autocorrelation for area data at multiple map resolutions via the construction of a connectivity matrix for calculating spatial autocorrelation indices based on ARRE.     

用机载多普勒雷达资料进行三维风场解析反演 II. 多重解析多普勒方法应用于在CaPE现场实验中获取的机载雷达实测资料

模拟结果证明，在机载雷达的技术参数下，多重解析多普勒（MANDOP）方法能够提供误差可以接受的三维风场反演。 1991年夏在美国的佛罗里达州举行的CaPE现场实验中首次应用了机载双束多普勒雷达，并获取了珍贵的雷达实测资料。用MANDOP方法分析1991年8月9日观测到的一个飑线，取得类似于以往用地基雷达资料得到飑线内部大气环流结构。另外，机载雷达资料与 地基雷达资料联合反演的结果与纯粹用机载雷达资料反演的结果之间很好的相关性证明了机载雷达资料的可靠性。     

Cell-zonal textures of tinguaites from the Kola Peninsula

Textures of tinguaite dykes cutting the alkaline Khibiny massif in the Kola Peninsula, Russia, are described. They are characterized by a combination of a fractal microfracture network dividing rock into pencil-like cells and of a concentric rhythmical zonation in almost all of them. The latter is formed by interchange of volatile-enriched and volatile-depleted mineral zones. The location of the textures only where dykes contact host khibinites appears to point out the contraction nature of the microfracture network. The cooling time calculated agrees well with this hypothesis. The zonation appears to have arisen through autometamorphic processes with two main competing factors, namely (a) overall cooling of the system and (b) periodic depletion of it in some elements, mainly Na and K. Another mechanism which may be applied to explain the zonation is the known Marangoni Instability effect at the early stage of evolution of the volatile-saturated phonolite melt. Thus, tinguaite textures are caused by nonspecific influences external to the system and may be regarded as an example of self-organization in nature.     

A record of accelerated erosion in the recent sediments of Blelham Tarn in the English Lake district

Two frozen cores from Blelham Tarn were subsampled and measured using mineral magnetic, loss-on-ignition (LOI), radiometric, granulometric and diatom analyses. A detailed chronology was established using varves, radioisotopes and diatoms. This has enabled an accurately dated reconstruction of sedimentation over the past forty years. Despite a large increase in lake productivity, evidence suggests that the observed exponential increase in sedimentation rates can be attributed to erosion within the catchment. The predominant sediment source has been identified as surface soil. A comparison between the trend of accelerated sedimentation and the record of increased sheep stocking density for the area within which the most of the catchment lies, as well as observations of contemporary surface processes within the catchment, both suggest that much of the recent erosion is a direct response to increased pressure from sheep grazing.     

Newtontoppen granitoid rocks, their geology, chemistry and Rb-Sr age

A post-tectonic Caledonian granite in southern Ny Friesland has been fully mapped and the following new names are proposed: the Chydeniusbreen granitoid suite, consisting of the Raudberget granitoid body in the north; the Newtontoppen granitoid body in the middle; and the Ekkoknausane granitoid body in the south
The contact relationships, internal structures and distribution of various rock types infer an asymmetric lopolith or a harpolith-like body, a large sickle-shaped intrusion stretched in the direction of general tectonic transport, for the Newtontoppen granitoid body.
Seven rock types are described in the Newtontoppen granitoid and four emplacement stages are recognised. The major rock types seem to have an alkali-calcic to alkalic bulk rock chemistry and show a transition between I- and S-type granite derived from anatectic melting of various protoliths under relatively high temperature conditions. Possible later K₂0 introduction modified the earlier formed rock types.
A Rb-Sr whole rock age of 432 ± 10 Ma has been obtained by a seven point isochron with MSDW = 2.59 and an initial Sr isotope ratio = 0.715. This age is approximately 30 Ma older than the previously obtained K-Ar whole rock and Rb-Sr biotite ages, ca. 400 Ma, which represents the period of cooling. The high initial Sr isotope ratio supports the interpretation of an anatectic origin.     

Rb-Sr whole rock and U-Pb zircon datings of the granitic-gabbroic rocks from the Skålfjellet Subgroup, southwest Spitsbergen

Recent remapping and new age determinations has shed light on the understanding of Precambrian rocks northwest of Hornsund, southwest Spitsbergen. The Skålfjellet Subgroup has been regarded as the eastern equivalent of the Vimsodden Subgroup, and both of these occur within the Precambrian Eimfjellet Group of southwest Spitsbergen. Although the Eimfjellet Group is considered to be older than the oldest unconformity in the area, the age of the rocks has not been known. The granitic-gabbroic rocks in the Skålfjellet Subgroup have been considered to be the products of granitisation for many years, but recent observations show that they are exotic blocks incorporated into the basic eruptive rocks which are the main constituents of the subgroup. These plutonic rocks have a wide range of compositions, from syenite via granite to gabbroic cumulates, which suggests the existence of a well-differentiated plutonic body at depth.
U-Pb zircon and Pb evaporation datings yielded magmatic ages of ca. 1,100 to 1,200 Ma, and a conformable age has been obtained by Rb-Sr whole rock dating. Detrital zircons from the micaceous schists of the Isbjørnhamna Group, which underlies the Skålfjellet Subgroup, show a poorly defined discordia with an upper intercept age of ca. 2,200 Ma and a lower intercept age of ca. 360 Ma. These dating results define the magmatic age of the granitic-gabbroic rocks as late Mesoproterozoic, early Grenvillian. This age is in broad agreement with that of the metavolcanic rock clasts of the Pyttholmen meta-pyroclastic-conglomeratic unit at Vimsodden, which is considered to be the westernmost occurrence of the Skålfjellet Subgroup.
A Rb-Sr whole rock age determination of the shaly phyllites from the Deilegga Group was performed in order to place constraints on the age of younger Precambrian event; however, no good isochron was obtained.     

Bismuth and cobalt minerals as indicators of stringer zones to massive sulphide deposits, Iberian Pyrite Belt

The stringer zones and commonly the interaction zone at the base of the massive sulphide mounds in the Iberian Pyrite Belt contain bismuth and cobalt minerals that are not found in the overlying massive sulphides. These are fairly rare cobalt sulphoarsenides (cobaltite, alloclasite, galucodot) that were formed at the beginning of the massive sulphide genesis, and fairly common bismuth sulphides (bismuthinite, hammarite, wittichenite, cosalite, kobellite, joseite, etc.), including species rare at world scale (nuffieldite, giessenite, jaskolskiite) that were deposited from last stage high-temperature (> 300 °C) copper-bearing fluids containing Bi (Te, Se). The last stage fluids precipitated chalcopyrite containing Cu, Bi, Te, (Se) sulphosalts at the base of the sulphide mound to form a high cupriferous zone. Their interaction with the massive sulphides is reflected by the formation of an exchange zone, a few metres thick, showing chalcopyrite disease textures, at the base of the mound; this zone forms the upper limit of potentially economic copper enrichment and of bismuth minerals. Gold is undoubtedly in part, if not totally, related to this last phase. The bismuth concentrations being equivalent in the massive sulphides and the stringers, the presence of bismuth minerals in the stringer zones results from high-temperature conditions combined with a rarity of galena, which impedes absorption of available Bi. The distribution of these bismuth minerals provides a basic mineralogical zoning in the stringer zone, with a deep, low-aS₂ zone containing native bismuth and tellurides and a shallow, higher-aS₂ zone in contact with the massive ore sensu stricto and containing complex bismuth sulphides. These results make it possible to distinguish between sulphide veinlets belonging to stockwork zones of massive orebodies and veinlets of an ambiguous nature, and provide mineralogical criteria for the proximity of copper-rich zones. They enrich the very complex mineralogy of the Iberian Pyrite Belt.     

H2O activity in concentrated NaCl solutions at high pressures and temperatures measured by the brucite-periclase equilibrium

 H₂O activities in concentrated NaCl solutions were measured in the ranges 600°–900° C and 2–15 kbar and at NaCl concentrations up to halite saturation by depression of the brucite (Mg(OH)₂) – periclase (MgO) dehydration equilibrium. Experiments were made in internally heated Ar pressure apparatus at 2 and 4.2 kbar and in 1.91-cm-diameter piston-cylinder apparatus with NaCl pressure medium at 4.2, 7, 10 and 15 kbar. Fluid compositions in equilibrium with brucite and periclase were reversed to closures of less than 2 mol% by measuring weight changes after drying of punctured Pt capsules. Brucite-periclase equilibrium in the binary system was redetermined using coarsely crystalline synthetic brucite and periclase to inhibit back-reaction in quenching. These data lead to a linear expression for the standard Gibbs free energy of the brucite dehydration reaction in the experimental temperature range: ΔG° (±120J)=73418–134.95T(K). Using this function as a baseline, the experimental dehydration points in the system MgO−H₂O−NaCl lead to a simple systematic relationship of high-temperature H₂O activity in NaCl solution. At low pressure and low fluid densities near 2 kbar the H₂O activity is closely approximated by its mole fraction. At pressures of 10 kbar and greater, with fluid densities approaching those of condensed H₂O, the H₂O activity becomes nearly equal to the square of its mole fraction. Isobaric halite saturation points terminating the univariant brucite-periclase curves were determined at each experimental pressure. The five temperature-composition points in the system NaCl−H₂O are in close agreement with the halite saturation curves (liquidus curves) given by existing data from differential thermal analysis to 6 kbar. Solubility of MgO in the vapor phase near halite saturation is much less than one mole percent and could not have influenced our determinations. Activity concentration relations in the experimental P-T range may be retrieved for the binary system H₂O-NaCl from our brucite-periclase data and from halite liquidus data with minor extrapolation. At two kbar, solutions closely approach an ideal gas mixture, whereas at 10 kbar and above the solutions closely approximate an ideal fused salt mixture, where the activities of H₂O and NaCl correspond to an ideal activity formulation. This profound pressure-induced change of state may be characterized by the activity (a) – concentration (X) expression: a _{H 2}O=X _{H 2}O/(1+αX _NaCl), and a _NaCl=(1+α)^(1+α)[X _NaCl/(1+αX _NaCl)]^(1+α). The parameter α is determined by regression of the brucite-periclase H₂O activity data: α=exp[A–B/ϱ_{H 2}O ]-CP/T, where A=4.226, B=2.9605, C=164.984, and P is in kbar, T is in Kelvins, and ϱ_{H 2}O is the density of H₂O at given P and T in g/cm³. These formulas reproduce both the H₂O activity data and the NaCl activity data with a standard deviation of ±0.010. The thermodynamic behavior of concentrated NaCl solutions at high temperature and pressure is thus much simpler than portrayed by extended Debye-Hückel theory. The low H₂O activity at high pressures in concentrated supercritical NaCl solutions (or hydrosaline melts) indicates that such solutions should be feasible as chemically active fluids capable of coexisting with solid rocks and silicate liquids (and a CO₂-rich vapor) in many processes of deep crustal and upper mantle metamorphism and metasomatism. Received: 1 September 1995 / Accepted: 24 March 1996     

Characterisation of brown coal humic acids and modified humic acids using pyrolysis gcms and other techniques

It has been proposed that Victorian brown coal can be considered as a two-component structure — a lignocellulosic “host”, containing various amounts of weakly bound or entrapped “guest” material together with very small amounts of inorganic and/or mineral matter. The latter predominantly consists of wax esters and/or terpenoid material. In this paper we describe attempts to gain structural information regarding the more complex, “host” component of the coal. Our initial model compound has been humic acid that can be readily obtained from the coal by alkaline extraction. It has been found that “pure” humic acid, free from material associated with the “guest” components of the coal, can be obtained by a highly selective, low-yielding alkaline extraction. This humic acid has been studied by nmr spectroscopy and pyrolysis gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy (py-gc/ms). The products arising from py-gc/ms have been compared with those obtained from similar pyrolysis of whole coals. Alkylation of humic acids using alkyl halides in the presence of base has been successfully carried out and reactivity of the resulting materials compared with those of the parent coal and humic acid.     

A traverse through the western Kunlun (Xinjiang,China): tentative geodynamic implications for the Paleozoic and Mesozoic

The northern part of the western Kunlun (southern margin of the Tarim basin) represents a Sinian rifted margin. To the south of this margin, the Sinian to Paleozoic Proto-Tethys Ocean formed. South-directed subduction of this ocean, beneath the continental southern Kunlun block during the Paleozoic, resulted in the collision between the northern and southern Kunlun blocks during the Devonian. The northern part of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean, located to the south of the southern Kunlun, was subducted to the north beneath the southern Kunlun during the Late Paleozoic to Early Mesozoic. This caused the formation of a subduction-accretion complex, including a sizeable accretionary wedge to the south of the southern Kunlun. A microcontinent (or oceanic plateau?), which we refer to as “Uygur terrane,” collided with the subduction complex during the Late Triassic. Both elements together represent the Kara-Kunlun. Final closure of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean took place during the Early Jurassic when the next southerly located continental block collided with the Kara-Kunlun area. From at least the Late Paleozoic to the Early Jurassic, the Tarim basin must be considered a back-arc region. The Kengxiwar lineament, which “connects” the Karakorum fault in the west and the Ruogiang-Xingxingxia/Altyn-Tagh fault zone in the east, shows signs of a polyphase strike-slip fault along which dextral and sinistral shearing occurred.