Laboratory experiments on the weathering of iron meteorites and carbonaceous chondrites by iron‐oxidizing bacteria

Abstract— Batch culture experiments were performed to investigate the weathering of meteoritic material by iron‐oxidizing bacteria. The aerobic, acidophilic iron oxidizer (A. ferrooxidans) was capable of oxidizing iron from both carbonaceous chondrites (Murchison and Cold Bokkeveld) and iron meteorites (York and Casas Grandes). Preliminary iron isotope results clearly show contrasted iron pathways during oxidation with and without bacteria suggesting that a biological role in meteorite weathering could be distinguished isotopically. Anaerobic iron‐oxidizers growing under pH‐neutral conditions oxidized iron from iron meteorites. These results show that rapid biologically‐mediated alteration of extraterrestrial materials can occur in both aerobic and anaerobic environments. These results also demonstrate that iron can act as a source of energy for microorganisms from both iron and carbonaceous chondrites in aerobic and anaerobic conditions with implications for life on the early Earth and the possible use of microorganisms to extract minerals from asteroidal material.     

Distribution and characteristics of Adirondack-class basalt as observed by Mini-TES in Gusev crater,Mars and its possible volcanic source

We identified 104 unique rock targets belonging to the olivine-rich Adirondack class using Mini-TES data. Rare rocks on the West Spur of the Columbia Hills and on the plains east of the Hills also belong to this class. We present evidence that Adirondack-class basaltic lavas may have had their origin at Apollinaris Tholus. Linear modeling of Adirondack-class rock spectra shows only minor variations in mineralogy and the primary phases identified are consistent with olivine basalt having an average olivine composition of ～Fo₄₅. We used factor analysis and target transformation to identify variability within a single class of rocks for the first time, and we find that olivine abundance varies independently of a basaltic matrix. A spectral component previously attributed to downwelling radiance is proposed here to be attributable to optically thin dust on rocks, which has a greater effect on Mini-TES spectra than previously recognized, but can explain the sloping continuum observed in Adirondack-class rock spectra as well as the apparent distortion of an olivine absorption. Spectral mixing is not completely linear, leading to the overestimation of sulfate and olivine fractions and the underestimation of plagioclase feldspar, although linear mixing appears to successfully replicate the majority of the observed signal. Published TES spectra of low albedo, low dust cover, olivine-bearing materials do not exhibit the spectral telltales of non-linear behavior, probably because orbital spectra represent mostly mobile regolith that has not accumulated a sufficient dust cover over ～3 × 6 km areas.     

First Spitzer observations of Neptune: Detection of new hydrocarbons

We present the first spectra of Neptune taken with the Spitzer Space Telescope, highlighting the high-sensitivity, moderate-resolution 10-20 μm (500-1000 cm⁻¹) spectra. We report the discovery of methylacetylene (CH₃C₂H) and diacetylene (C₄H₂) with derived 0.1-mbar volume mixing ratios of (1.2±0.1)×¹⁰⁻¹⁰ and (3±1)×¹⁰⁻¹² respectively.     

Financing loss and damage: reviewing options under the Warsaw International Mechanism

After decades of pressure from vulnerable developing countries, the Warsaw International Mechanism on Loss and Damage (the WIM) was established at the nineteenth Conference of the Parties (COP 19) in 2013 to address costly damages from climate change. However, little progress has been made towards establishing a mechanism to fund loss and damage. The WIM's Executive Committee issued its first two-year workplan the following year at COP 20 which offered, among other things, a range of approaches to financing loss and damage programmes, which we review here. We provide brief overviews of each mechanism proposed by the WIM ExCom, describe their current applications, their statuses under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), some of their advantages and disadvantages, and their current or potential application to loss and damage. We find that several of these mechanisms may be useful in supporting loss and damage programmes, but identify some key gaps. First, most of the mechanisms identified by the WIM ExCom are insurance schemes subsidized with voluntary contributions, which may not be adequate or reliable over time. Second, none were devised to apply to slow-onset events, or to non-economic losses and damages. That is, if harms are inflicted on parts of a society or its ecosystems that have no price, or if they occur gradually, they would probably not be covered by these mechanisms. Finally, the lack of a dedicated and adequate flow of finance to address the real loss and damage being experienced by vulnerable nations will require the use of innovative financial tools beyond those mentioned in the WIM ExCom workplan.

Key policy insights

• Despite a full article of the 2015 Paris Agreement devoted to loss and damage, there is little international agreement on the scope of loss and damage programmes, and especially how they would be funded and by whom.

• Most of the loss and damage funding mechanisms identified by the WIM ExCom are insurance schemes subsidized with voluntary contributions, which may burden the most vulnerable countries and may not be reliable over time.

• None of the mechanisms were devised to apply to slow-onset events, or to non-economic losses and damages.

     

Simultaneous X-ray and IR variability in the quasar 3C 273

From a combination of high-quality X-ray observations from the NASA Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer ( RXTE ) and IR observations from the UK Infrared Telescope (UKIRT) we show that the medium-energy X-ray (3–20 keV) and near-IR fluxes in the quasar 3C 273 are highly correlated. It is widely believed that the X-ray emission in quasars like 3C 273 arises from Compton scattering of low-energy seed photons, and our observations provide the first reliable detection of correlated variations in 3C 273 between the X-ray band and any lower energy band. For a realistic electron distribution we demonstrate that it is probable that each decade of the seed-photon distribution from the mm to IR wavebands contributes roughly equally to the medium-energy X-ray flux. However, the expected mm variations are too small to be detected above the noise, probably explaining the lack of success of previous searches for a correlation between X-ray and mm variations. In addition, we show that the IR leads the X-rays by  0.75±0.25 d  . These observations rule out the 'External Compton' emission process for the production of the X-rays.     

Organohalogen contaminants and trace metals in North-East Atlantic porbeagle shark (Lamna nasus)

The North-East Atlantic porbeagle (Lamna nasus) population has declined dramatically over the last few decades and is currently classified as ‘Critically Endangered’. As long-lived, apex predators, they may be vulnerable to bioaccumulation of contaminants. In this study organohalogen compounds and trace elements were analysed in 12 specimens caught as incidental bycatch in commercial gillnet fisheries in the Celtic Sea in 2011. Levels of organohalogen contaminants were low or undetectable (summed CB and BDE concentrations 0.04–0.85 mg kg⁻¹ wet weight). A notably high Cd concentration (7.2 mg kg⁻¹ wet weight) was observed in one mature male, whereas the range observed in the other samples was much lower (0.04–0.26 mg kg⁻¹ wet weight). Hg and Pb concentrations were detected only in single animals, at 0.34 and 0.08 mg kg⁻¹ wet weight, respectively. These contaminant levels were low in comparison to other published studies for shark species.