Crystallization of microlites and degassing during magma ascent: Constraints on the fluid mechanical behavior of magma during the Tenjo Eruption on Kozu Island, Japan

Bubble and crystal textures provide information with regard to the kinetics of the vesiculation and crystallization processes. They also provide insights into the fluid mechanical behavior of magma in a conduit. We performed textural (bubble and crystal) and compositional analyses of pyroclasts that were obtained from the Tenjo pyroclastic flow, which resulted on account of the eruption in 838 A.D. on Kozu Island, about 200 km south of Tokyo, Japan. Pyroclasts in one flow unit (300∼2,060 kg/m³; average density 1330 kg/m³) can be classified into three types on the basis of vesicle textures. Type I pyroclasts have small isolated spherical bubbles with higher vesicularities (67–77 vol.%) and number density (10.8–11.7 log m⁻³). Type II pyroclasts have vesicularities similar to type I (61–69 vol.%), but most bubbles exhibit evidences of bubble coalescence, and lower number densities than type I (8.9–9.5 log m⁻³). Type III pyroclasts contain highly deformed bubbles with lower vesicularities (16–34 vol.%) and number densities (8.2–9.0 log m⁻³). The microlite volume fraction (DRE converted) also changes consistently across type I, type II, and type III as 0.06, 0.08, and 0.10–0.15, respectively. However, the number density of the microlites remains nearly invariant in all the pyroclast types. These facts indicate that the variation in the microlite volume fraction is controlled not by the number density (i.e., nucleation process), but by the size (i.e., growth process); the growth history of each type of microlite was different. Water content determinations show that the three types of pumices have similar H₂O contents (2.6±0.2 wt%). This fact implies that all three types were quenched at nearly the same depth (35±5 MPa, assuming that the magma was water-saturated) in the conduit. If the crystal sizes are limited only by growth time, a variation in this parameter can be related to the residence time, which is attributed to the flow heterogeneity in the conduit. By assuming a laminar Poiseuille-type flow, these textural observations can be explained by the difference in ascent velocity and shearing motion across the conduit, which in turn results in the differences in growth times of crystals, degrees of deformation, and bubble coalescence. Consequently, for crystals in the inner part of the conduit, the crystal growth time from nucleation to quenching is shorter than that near the conduit wall. The vesicle texture variation of bubbles in types I, II, and III results from the difference in the deformation history, implying that the effect of degassing occurred primarily towards the conduit wall.     

Thermal maturity of a fold–thrust belt based on vitrinite reflectance analysis in the Western Foothills complex, western Taiwan

Burial depth, cumulative displacement, and peak temperature of frictional heat of a fault system are estimated by thermal analysis in the fold–thrust belt of the Western Foothills complex, western Taiwan based on the vitrinite reflectance technique. The regional thermal structure across the complex reveals that the rocks were exposed to maximum temperatures ranging from 100 °C to 180 °C, which corresponds to a burial depth of 3.7–6.7 km. A large thermal difference of 90 °C were observed at the Shuilikeng fault which make the eastern boundary of the fold–thrust belt where it is in contact with metamorphic rock of Hsuehshan Range. The large thermal difference corresponds to cumulative displacements on the Shuilikeng fault estimated to be in the range of 5.2–6.9 km. However, thermal differences in across the Shuangtung and Chelungpu faults cannot be determined apparently due to small vertical offsets. The large displacement observed across the Shuilikeng fault is absent at the other faults which are interpreted to be younger faults within the piggyback thrust system. Localized high temperatures adjacent to fault zones were observed in core samples penetrating the Chelungpu fault. Three major fracture zones were observed at core lengths of 225 m, 330 m, and 405 m and the two lower zones which comprise dark gray narrow shear zones. A value of vitrinite reflectance of 1.8%, higher than the background value of 0.8%, is limited at a narrow shear zone of 1 cm thickness at the fracture zone at 330 m. The estimated peak temperature in the range of 550–680 °C in the shear zone is far higher than the background temperature of 130 °C, and it is interpreted as due to frictional heating during seismic faulting.     

Operational Data Assimilation System for the Kuroshio South of Japan: Reanalysis and Validation

We describe an operational ocean data assimilation system for the Kuroshio and its validation using a nine-year reanalysis (historical run from 1993 to 2001) dataset of upper-ocean state estimation in the North Pacific. The horizontal structure of volume transport of the Ryukyu Current System (RCS) is shown from the reanalysis: The RCS is connected to the flow of the subtropical gyre, and its volume transport gradually increases from south-east of Okinawa (5–10 Sv) to the east of Amami-Ohshima Island (20 Sv). Comparing the reanalysis with independent observations on the southeast slope of the Amami-Ohshima Island indicates that the root mean square differences (RMSDs) are 0.076 (0.037) m/s in the period of December 1998 to November 1999 (November 1999 to November 2000) respectively. The reanalysis field has a bias (3.1 Sv) of the volume transport of the RCS and the RMSD (3.5 Sv) which is larger than the observed variability (2.81 Sv). Surface velocity and the Kuroshio axis south of Japan are also examined. Comparison of the reanalysis and ADCP data gave maximum RMSD of 0.749 (0.271) m/s in the strong (weak) current regions, respectively. The annual mean value of the axis error is 19 km in 1998. The RMSD of the error is at most 50 km, in 294 cases in the observation period, which is smaller than the observed root mean square variability of the axis (64 km). This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Blended-acquisition design of irregular geometries towards faster,cheaper, safer and better seismic surveying

The application of blended acquisition has drawn considerable attention owing to its ability to improve the operational efficiency as well as the data quality and health, safety and environment performance. Furthermore, the acquisition of less data contributes to the business aspect, while the desired data density is still realizable via subsequent data reconstruction. The use of fewer detectors and sources also minimizes operational risks in the field. Therefore, a combined implementation of these technologies potentially enhances the value of a seismic survey further. One way to encourage this is to minimize any imperfection in deblending and data reconstruction during processing. In addition, one may derive survey parameters that enable a further improvement in these processes as introduced in this study. The proposed survey design workflow iteratively performs the following steps to derive the survey parameters responsible for source blending as well as the spatial sampling of detectors and sources. The first step is the application of blending and sampling operators to unblended and well-sampled data. We then apply closed-loop deblending and data reconstruction. The residue for a given design from this step is evaluated and subsequently used by genetic algorithms to simultaneously update the survey parameters related to both blending and spatial sampling. The updated parameters are fed into the next iteration until they satisfy the given termination criteria. We also propose a repeated encoding sequence to form a parameter sequence in genetic algorithms, making the size of problem space manageable. The results of the proposed workflow are outlined using blended dispersed source array data incorporating different scenarios that represent acquisition in marine, transition zone and land environments. Clear differences attributed solely to the parameter design are easily recognizable. Additionally, a comparison among different optimization schemes illustrates the ability of genetic algorithms along with a repeated encoding sequence to find better solutions within a computationally affordable time. The optimized parameters yield a notable enhancement in the deblending and data reconstruction quality and consequently provide optimal acquisition scenarios.     

Temporal dynamics of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) produced in a microcosm with red tide forming algae <Emphasis Type="Italic">Chattonella marina</Emphasis> and its associated bacteria

Acute and severe hypoxia associated with harmful algal bloom has become one of the major causes for the environmental deterioration of coastal areas. Although it is generally thought that a large part of the dissolved oxygen consumption at a bloom site is initiated by heterotrophic bacteria that attack organic matter derived from dead or dying algal cells, precise microbial processes leading to the hypoxia are yet to be examined. Here we show temporal dynamics of extracellular dissolved organic carbon (DOC) of the red tide forming raphidophyte Chattonella marina and bacterial populations associating with the algae under laboratory conditions. During the growth of non-axenic strains of C. marina, we monitored abundance of algae, associated bacteria, and DOC in the culture media. Bacterial cell abundance increased in response to the increase in DOC both at the beginning and the late log phase of the algal growth. Flow cytometric analysis revealed that transient increase in the percentage of respiratory-active bacterial cells also coincided with the timing of the increase in bacterial abundance and DOC. These results strongly suggest that DOC released from growing C. marina fuels respiration and growth of planktonic bacteria surrounding the algae. This has implications for the role of DOC released from C. marina bloom before the collapse in mediating interactions between neighboring algae and bacterial assemblage which may eventually lead to algal bloom-associated hypoxia.     

Enrichment of alkanes within a phytoplankton bloom during an in situ iron enrichment experiment in the western subarctic Pacific

During the Subarctic Pacific Iron Experiment for Ecosystem Dynamics Study ΙΙ (SEEDS-II), we monitored variations in the concentrations of non-methane hydrocarbons (NMHCs), CH₃Cl, N₂O, and CH₄ within a phytoplankton bloom. Stable isotopic compositions were also determined to evaluate the sources of the variations. Although there was little variation in either the concentrations or the stable isotopic compositions of alkenes, CH₃Cl, N₂O, and CH₄ during the 23-day observation period, alkane concentrations increased substantially as the phytoplankton bloomed. The column-integrated quantities of alkanes increased to 3 times pre-bloom levels for C₂H₆, 5 times for C₃H₈, and 20 times for n-C₄H₁₀. The δ¹³C values of both C₂H₆ and C₃H₈ remained almost constant while concentrations increased, whereas that of n-C₄H₁₀ increased by about 12‰. To evaluate the sources of the alkanes produced during the bloom, we compared their δ¹³C values with those of alkanes produced in axenic phytoplankton cultures in our laboratory. We concluded that during the SEEDS-ΙΙ experiment the major portions of C₂H₆ and C₃H₈ were produced during the autolysis of diatoms cells, whereas n-C₄H₁₀ was produced during autolysis of other phytoplankton cells such as cryptophytes and dinoflagellates.     

Temporal changes in benthic communities of seagrass beds impacted by a tsunami in the Andaman Sea,Thailand

Seagrass beds are susceptible to various natural and human-induced disturbances. Disturbances affect not only seagrasses, but also the abundance and diversity of associated macrofaunal communities. The Andaman Sea coast of Thailand was heavily affected by the tsunami of December 26, 2004. To examine its impact on seagrass macrofaunal communities, we compared the abundance, diversity and taxa composition by quantitative samplings in 2001 (before the tsunami) and in 2005 and 2006 (after the tsunami). Macrobenthic animals and sediments were collected from vegetated and nonvegetated areas of two sites that had received different levels of tsunami disturbances. A large decline in abundance and diversity was observed in the nonvegetated areas after the tsunami, whereas an increase was observed in the vegetated areas. The magnitude of decline and subsequent recovery of abundance and diversity of macrobenthic animals in nonvegetated areas were similar between the two sites, suggesting that their temporal changes were not solely related to the magnitude of the tsunami disturbance. Similarity of the benthic animals differed greatly between 2001 and 2005–2006 at the nonvegetated areas, whereas it varied less among the 3 years at the seagrass-vegetated areas. This study demonstrated that the presence of seagrass vegetation alters the patterns of temporal variation in macrofaunal assemblages and subsequent recovery processes following a tsunami.     

Rapid subsidence of the Kikai Seamount inferred from drowned Pleistocene coral limestone: Implication for subduction of the Amami Plateau,northern Philippine Sea

Carbonate rock cores drilled on the Kikai Seamount, northern Philippine Sea are examined for better understanding of tectonic history of the northern Philippine Sea. The Kikai Seamount, the summit of which is at 1960 m water depth, is an isolated high on the northwestern part of the Amami Plateau formed by subduction-related arc volcanism, and is situated close to the axis of the Ryukyu Trench in front of the Ryukyu Arc, SW Japan. The seamount is capped with shallow-water carbonates such as coral rudstone. Detailed examinations of lithology, larger foraminiferal assemblages, and Sr isotope composition reveal that the core material comprises Miocene carbonates unconformably overlain by Early Pleistocene carbonates. It indicates rapid subsidence of the Kikai Seamount since the Early Pleistocene. The most probable cause of rapid subsidence is collision and subduction of the Amami Plateau laden with the Kikai Seamount. The rapid subsidence may have started when the western corner of the plateau reached the Ryukyu Trench and began subduction beneath the Ryukyu Arc. The onset of the subsidence is likely to be controlled by a motion change in the Philippine Sea Plate. The latest change in subduction direction from north to northwestward into northwestward to west has been believed to have occurred at 1-2 Ma during latest Pliocene to Early Pleistocene time. The change of direction resulted in the shift from oblique into right-angle subduction of the plate beneath the Ryukyu Arc and also the onset of the collision and subduction of the Amami Plateau.     

ENSO and Western North Pacific tropical cyclone activity simulated in a CGCM

A high-resolution (T213) coupled ocean–atmosphere general circulation model (CGCM) has been used to examine the relationship between El Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and tropical cyclone (TC) activity over the western North Pacific (WNP). The model simulates ENSO-like events similar to those observed, though the amplitude of the simulated Niño34 sea surface temperature (SST) anomaly is twice as large as observed. In El Niño (La Niña) years, the annual number of model TCs in the southeast quadrant of the WNP increases (decreases), while it decreases (increases) in the northwest quadrant. In spite of the significant difference in the mean genesis location of model TCs between El Niño and La Niña years, however, there is no significant simultaneous correlation between the annual number of model TCs over the entire WNP and model Niño34 SST anomalies. The annual number of model TCs, however, tends to decrease in the years following El Niño, relating to the development of anticyclonic circulation around the Philippine Sea in response to the SST anomalies in the central and eastern equatorial Pacific. Furthermore, it seems that the number of model TCs tends to increase in the years before El Niño. It is also shown that the number of TCs moving into the East Asia is fewer in October of El Niño years than La Niña years, related to the anomalous southward shift of mid-latitude westerlies, though no impact of ENSO on TC tracks is found in other months. It is found that model TCs have longer lifetimes due to the southeastward shift of mean TC genesis location in El Niño years than in La Niña years. As the result of longer fetch of TCs over warm SST, model TCs appear to be more intense in El Niño years. These relationships between ENSO and TC activity in the WNP are in good agreement with observational evidence, suggesting that a finer-resolution CGCM may become a powerful tool for understanding interannual variability of TC activity.