Imaging the heart of astrophysical objects with optical long-baseline interferometry

The number of publications of aperture-synthesis images based on optical long-baseline interferometry measurements has recently increased due to easier access to visible and infrared interferometers. The interferometry technique has now reached a technical maturity level that opens new avenues for numerous astrophysical topics requiring milli-arcsecond model-independent imaging. In writing this paper our motivation was twofold: (1) review and publicize emblematic excerpts of the impressive corpus accumulated in the field of optical interferometry image reconstruction; (2) discuss future prospects for this technique by selecting four representative astrophysical science cases in order to review the potential benefits of using optical long-baseline interferometers. For this second goal we have simulated interferometric data from those selected astrophysical environments and used state-of-the-art codes to provide the reconstructed images that are reachable with current or soon-to-be facilities. The image-reconstruction process was ??blind?? in the sense that reconstructors had no knowledge of the input brightness distributions. We discuss the impact of optical interferometry in those four astrophysical fields. We show that image-reconstruction software successfully provides accurate morphological information on a variety of astrophysical topics and review the current strengths and weaknesses of such reconstructions. We investigate how to improve image reconstruction and the quality of the image possibly by upgrading the current facilities. We finally argue that optical interferometers and their corresponding instrumentation, existing or to come, with six to ten telescopes, should be well suited to provide images of complex sceneries.     

A discussion of statistical methods used to estimate extreme wind speeds

Summary Wind speeds in extra-tropical latitudes are known to be approximately Weibull distributed. Hence a Weibull distribution fitted to all available data is often used to predict extreme winds. The most extreme values then, however, have little influence on the estimated parent Weibull distribution, and the accuracy of the extreme value predictions obtained in this manner may be questioned. In the present paper such a “Weibull method” is compared to a method based on statistical extreme value theory, “the annual maxima method”. The comparison is based on 30 years of 10 minute wind speed averages measured hourly at 12 meteorological stations located at airports in Sweden. Results show that the Weibull method generates incorrect estimates of the tails of the distributions of wind speeds and of the distribution of yearly maximum wind speed, and that serial dependence of individual measurements has to be taken into account. In addition, it is inherent in the Weibull method that it does not provide any confidence bounds for the estimates. The annual maxima method avoids these problems. The measurements were rounded, first to entire knots, and then to m/s. A further, “technical”, result is that if this rounding were disregarded in the estimation procedure, then the computed standard errors of the parameter estimates would be erroneously low. Hence, if rounding is done, it should be taken into account in the estimation procedure. We also believe this to be a clear indication that rounding of the data decreases estimation accuracy.     

Rainfall/runoff processes in a small peri‐urban catchment in the Andes mountains. The Rumihurcu Quebrada,Quito (Ecuador)

Situated at the foot of the Pichincha volcano, the city of Quito is frequently subjected to hydroclimatic hazards. In 1995 an 11·2 km² watershed, located in the vicinity of the city, was equipped with eight rain gauges and two flow gauges to better understand the local rainfall/runoff transformation processes. Rainfall simulation experiments were carried out on more than 40 one‐square‐metre plots to measure infiltration point‐processes. The high density of measurement devices allowed us to identify the origin and nature of the various contributions to runoff for the different physiographic units of the watershed: urban area from an altitude of 2800 to 3200 m; farmland, pasture and forested land, and finally páramo above 3900 m. Runoff occurs mainly in the lower part of the basin and is caused by urbanization; however, the natural soils of this area can also produce Hortonian runoff, which is predominant in a few events. This contribution can be studied through rainfall simulation experiments. In the upper natural zone, the younger and more permeable soils generate less runoff on the slopes. However, almost permanently saturated contributing areas, which are located in the bottom of the quebradas, may generate flood events, the size of which depends on the extent of the area concerned. Variations in the runoff coefficients are related first to the baseflow and second to the amount of rainfall in the previous 24 h. This analysis, which underlines the complexity of a small, peri‐urban, volcanic catchment, is a necessary preliminary to runoff modelling in an area where very few experiments have been carried out on small catchments. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

In Situ Multi-Element Analysis of the Mount Pinatubo Quartz-Hosted Melt Inclusions by NIR Femtosecond Laser Ablation-Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry

Microscopic melt inclusions found in magmatic minerals are undoubtedly one of the most important sources of information on the chemical composition of melts. This paper reports on the successful application of near-infrared (NIR) femtosecond laser ablation (LA) - inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry to in situ determination of incompatible trace elements (Li, Rb, Sr, Y, Zr, Nb, Cs, Ba, REE, Ta, Th, U) and ore metals (As, Mo, Pb) in individual melt inclusions hosted in quartz from the Mount Pinatubo dacites, Philippines. The determined elements cover a concentration range of five orders of magnitude. Femtosecond LA-ICP-MS analyses of twenty-eight individual melt inclusions demonstrate the efficiency of the microanalytical technique and suggests a spectacular homogeneity of the entrapped melt, at least with respect to the following incompatible trace elements: Rb, Sr, Nb, Cs, Ba, La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pb, Th. The analytical precision (1s) for Na, Ca, Rb, Sr, Y, Nb, Ba and LREE ranged from 3 to 20%. Comparison of trace element concentrations in Mt. Pinatubo melt inclusions determined by femtosecond LA-ICP-MS with those of melt inclusions previously analysed by secondary ion mass spectrometry analysis (SIMS) and those of matrix glasses previously determined by nanosecond LA-ICP-MS showed an agreement typically within 30–40%. The homogeneity of trace element concentrations of the Mt. Pinatubo melt inclusions and the matrix glasses is consistent with the melt inclusion origin as homogeneous rhyolitic melt that was trapped in quartz phenocrysts at the final crystallisation stages of the host adakite (dacite) magma.     

Monsoonal influences on a mesoscale convective systemover midlatitude South Australia

Summary An Australian circular mesoscale convective system (MCS) is examined using available surface and upper air analyses as well as satellite imagery. The MCS formed over central South Australia on 5 February 1997 and lasted approximately nine hours. It is found that MCS generation occurred following anomalous southward penetration of the monsoon trough over Australia. This penetration into southern Australia resulted in an input of extremely moist and unstable tropical air over the region which, together with the development of complex of shallow lows and troughs within the main monsoon trough, led to generation of the MCS. During the lifespan of the MCS, rainfall amounts in excess of 100 mm (and up to 175 mm over a four hour period at certain locations) were recorded with accompanying flash flooding and severe damage. A low in the middle levels of the atmosphere was responsible for the eventual decay of the storm. North to north-westerly winds winds around this low continually advected cloud away from the MCS towards the south and south east. This removal of cloud mass eventually led to dissipation of the MCS as it tracked away from the zone of maximum surface heating. Despite this storm just failing to meet the size criterion for mesoscale convective complex (MCC) status, it is very similar to “typical” MCCs found elsewhere in the world in terms of its lifetime and nocturnal nature. Although mesoscale storms of this type are not rare in Australia, MCS’s in South Australia make up only a small proportion of the total number of systems over south eastern Australia. These factors, in conjunction with the anomalous southward penetration of the monsoon trough and associated synoptic conditions, make this storm somewhat unusual. Received September 24, 1999 Revised December 30, 1999     

Inference of the structure of karst conduits using quantitative tracer tests and geological information: example of the Swiss Jura

Karst aquifers are known for being particularly heterogeneous with highly transmissive conduits embedded in low permeability volumes of rock matrix. Artificial tracer experiments have been carried out in a complex karst aquifer of the folded Jura Mountains in Switzerland with the aim of deciphering the conduit organisation. It is shown that tracer experiments with multiple injection points under different flow conditions can lead to useful information on the conduits’ structure. This information has been combined with data from structural geology, spring hydrology, and speleological observations. A conceptual model of the conduit network shows that a detailed inference of the conduit organisation can be reached: geology controls conduit location and orientation; spring hydrology, including temporary springs, constrains conduit elevations and relative hydraulic heads in the aquifer subsystems; and tracer tests identify major flow paths and outlets of the system and dilution caused by non-traced tributaries, as well as the presence of secondary flow routes. This understanding of the Aubonne aquifer structure has important implications for the future management of the groundwater resource. Similar approaches coupling geological information, spring hydrology, and multi-tracer tests under various flow conditions may help to characterise the structure of the conduit network in karst aquifers.