Xenoliths and microxenoliths in H chondrites: Sampling the zodiacal cloud in the asteroid Main Belt

Abstract– Xenoliths are inclusions of a given meteorite group embedded in host meteorites of a different group. Xenoliths with dimensions between a few μm and about 1 mm (microxenoliths) are “meteorite‐trapped” analogues of micrometeorites collected on the Earth. However, they have the unique features of sampling the zodiacal cloud (1) at more ancient times than those sampled by micrometeorites and (2) at larger distances from the Sun (corresponding to the asteroid Main Belt) than that sampled by micrometeorites (1 AU). Herein we describe a systematic search for new xenoliths and microxenoliths in H chondrites, aimed at determining their abundance in these ordinary chondrites, analyzing their mineralogy, and searching for possible correlations with host meteorite properties. Sixty‐six sections from 40 meteorites have been analyzed. Twenty‐four new xenoliths have been discovered. About 87% of them are microxenoliths (i.e., <1 mm), only three are >1 mm in their largest dimension. All the newly discovered xenoliths and microxenoliths are composed of carbonaceous chondritic material. Hence, the zodiacal cloud was dominated by carbonaceous material even in past epochs. All the new xenoliths and microxenoliths have been found in regolith breccias. Hydrous‐phase‐rich xenoliths and microxenoliths in H4 and H5 chondrites attest that their embedding happened after the end of the thermal metamorphism. All these data suggest that xenoliths and microxenoliths were embedded when their host meteorites were part of the parent body regolith. This, combined with the H chondrite impact age distribution, attests that the embedding may have happened as early as 3.5 Gyr ago.     

A primitive dark inclusion with radiation‐damaged silicates in the Ningqiang carbonaceous chondrite

Abstract— A petrologic and TEM study of a remarkable dark inclusion (DI) in the Ningqiang CV3 chondrite reveals that it is a mixture of highly primitive solar nebula materials. The DI contains two lithologies. The first, lithology A, contains micron‐sized olivine and pyroxene grains rimmed by amorphous materials with compositions similar to the underlying crystalline grains. The second, lithology B, appears to preserve the mineralogy of lithology A before formation of the amorphous rims. Overall, the Ningqiang DI appears to record the following processes: 1) formation (condensation and Fe‐enrichment) of olivine crystals in the nebula with compositions of Fo_42–62; 2) irradiation, resulting in amorphitization of the olivine and pyroxene to varying degrees; 3) partial annealing, resulting in formation of fairly large, euhedral olivine and pyroxene grains with remnant amorphous sharply‐bounded rims; 4) in some cases, prolonged annealing, resulting in the formation of microcrystalline olivine or pyroxene rims. The latter annealing would have been a natural consequence of irradiation near the critical temperature for olivine; and 5) mixture of the above materials (lithology A) with nebular condensate high‐Ca pyroxene and olivine, which escaped nebular processing, to become lithology B. We suggest that the amorphous rims in lithology A formed in an energetic solar event such as a bi‐polar outflow or FU‐orionis flare.     

NWA 1152 and Sahara 00182: New primitive carbonaceous chondrites with affinities to the CR and CV groups

Abstract— We have investigated the mineralogy, petrography, bulk chemistry, and light element isotope composition of the ungrouped chondrites North West Africa (NWA) 1152 and Sahara 00182. NWA 1152 contains predominantly type 1 porphyritic olivine (PO) and porphyritic olivinepyroxene (POP) chondrules. Chondrule silicates are magnesium‐rich (Fo_{98.8 ± 1.2}, n = 36; Fs_{2.3 ± 2.1} Wo_{1.2 ± 0.3}, n = 23). Matrix comprises ?40 vol% of the sample and is composed of a micron sized silicate groundmass with larger silicate, sulfide, magnetite, and Fe‐Ni metal (Ni ?50 wt%) grains. Phyllosilicates were not observed in the matrix. Refractory inclusions are rare (0.3 vol%) and are spinel pyroxene aggregates or amoeboid olivine aggregates; melilite is absent from the refractory inclusions. Sahara 00182 contains predominantly type 1 PO chondrules, POP chondrules are less common. Most chondrules contain blebs of, and are often rimmed with, Fe‐Ni metal and sulfide. Chondrule phenocrysts are magnesium‐rich (Fo_{92.2 ± 0.6}, n = 129; Fs_{4.4 ± 1.8} Wo_{1.3 ± 1.1}, n = 16). Matrix comprises ?30 vol% of the meteorite and is predominantly sub‐micron silicates, with rare larger silicate gains. Matrix Fe‐Ni metal (mean Ni = 5.8 wt%) and sulfide grains are up to mm scale. No phyllosilicates were observed in the matrix. Refractory inclusions are rare (1.1 vol%) and melilite is absent. The oxygen isotope composition of NWA 1152 falls within the range of the CV chondrites with δ¹⁷O = ?3.43%0 δ¹⁸O = 0.70%0 and is similar to Sahara 00182, δ¹⁷O = ?3.89%0, δ¹⁸O = ?0.19%0 (Grossman and Zipfel 2001). Based on mineralogical and petrographic characteristics, we suggest NWA 1152 and Sahara 00182 show many similarities with the CR chondrites, however, oxygen isotopes suggest affinity with the CVs. Thus, neither sample can be assigned to any of the currently known carbonaceous chondrite groups based on traditionally recognized characteristics. Both samples demonstrate the complexity of inter‐ and intra‐group relationships of the carbonaceous chondrites. Whatever their classification, N WA 1152 and Sahara 00182 represent a source of relatively pristine solar system material.     

Apparent tidal influence on magmatic activity at Oldoinyo Lengai volcano,Tanzania, as observed in Moderate resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) data

This paper investigates the relative timing of solid Earth tides and thermal anomalies associated with volcanic activity at Oldoinyo Lengai (OL), Tanzania, from 2000 to 2008. The low viscosity of OL's carbonatite magmas may make it particularly susceptible to tidal stresses. Thermal data from the Moderate resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) were filtered using the MODLEN algorithm and Earth tides were modeled using TSoft. Application of the Schuster and Chi-squared tests resulted in apparent correlations between times of thermal anomalies and the phase of the semi-diurnal and biannual solid Earth tides. However, for semi-diurnal and biannual tides limited acquisition times of the MODIS data account for the apparent correlations. Re-examining the data while accounting for the bias introduced by the limited acquisition times, correlations are no longer found. Onset times of eruptive events and times of thermal anomalies show no statistically significant correlation with the fortnightly tide, indicating this is not an influence on activity at OL. Tidal influences on magmatic activity, if at all present, cannot be observed in coarse resolution thermal data on semi-diurnal and fortnightly time scales. Based on the available data, correlations on biannual timescales cannot be ruled out.     

A thermo‐hydro‐mechanical model for unsaturated soils based on the effective stress concept

A simple thermo‐hydro‐mechanical (THM) constitutive model for unsaturated soils is described. The effective stress concept is extended to unsaturated soils with the introduction of a capillary stress. This capillary stress is based on a microstructural model and calculated from attraction forces due to water menisci. The effect of desaturation and the thermal softening phenomenon are modelled with a minimal number of material parameters and based on existing models. THM process is qualitatively and quantitatively modelled by using experimental data and previous work to show the application of the model, including a drying path under mechanical stress with transition between saturated and unsaturated states, a heating path under constant suction and a deviatoric path with imposed suction and temperature. The results show that the present model can simulate the THM behaviour in unsaturated soils in a satisfactory way. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Sulfur isotopic composition of Fe‐Ni sulfide grains in CI and CM carbonaceous chondrites

Abstract– In situ secondary ion mass spectrometry analyses of ³²S, ³³S, and ³⁴S in iron‐nickel sulfide grains in two CI1 chondrites and six CM chondrites were performed. The results show a wider range of both enrichment and depletion in δ³⁴S relative to troilite from the Canyon Diablo meteorite (CDT) than has been observed in previous studies. All data points lie within error of a single mass dependent fractionation line. Sulfides from CI1 chondrites show δ³⁴S_CDT from ?0.7 to 6.8‰, while sulfide grains in the CM1 chondrite are generally depleted in heavy sulfur relative to CDT (δ³⁴S from ?2.9 to 1.8‰). CM2 chondrites contain sulfide grains that show enrichment and depletion in ³⁴S (δ³⁴S_CDT from ?7.0 to 6.8‰). Sulfates forming from sulfide grains during aqueous alteration on the chondrite parent body are suggested to concentrate light sulfur, leaving the remaining sulfide grains enriched in the heavy isotopes of sulfur. The average degree of enrichment in ³⁴S in CM chondrite sulfides is broadly consistent with previously suggested alteration sequences.     

Assessment of grain-scale homogeneity and equilibration of carbon and oxygen isotope compositions of minerals in carbonate-bearing metamorphic rocks by ion microprobe

Nineteen samples of metamorphosed carbonate-bearing rocks were analyzed for carbon and oxygen isotope ratios by ion microprobe with a ∼5-15 μm spot, three from a regional terrain and 16 from five different contact aureoles. Contact metamorphic rocks further represent four groups: calc-silicate marble and hornfels (6), brucite marble (2), samples that contain a reaction front (4), and samples with a pervasive distribution of reactants and products of a decarbonation reaction (4). The average spot-to-spot reproducibility of standard calcite analyses is ±0.37‰ (2 standard deviations, SD) for δ¹⁸O and ±0.71‰ for δ¹³C. Ten or more measurements of a mineral in a sample that has uniform isotope composition within error of measurement can routinely return a weighted mean with a 95% confidence interval of 0.09-0.16‰ for δ¹⁸O and 0.10-0.29‰ for δ¹³C. Using a difference of >6SD as the criterion, only four of 19 analyzed samples exhibit significant intracrystalline and/or intercrystalline inhomogeneity in δ¹³C at the 100-500 μm scale, with differences within individual grains up to 3.7‰. Measurements are consistent with carbon isotope exchange equilibrium between calcite and dolomite in five of six analyzed samples at the same scale. Because of relatively slow carbon isotope diffusion in calcite and dolomite, differences in δ¹³C can survive intracrystalline homogenization by diffusion during cooling after peak metamorphism and likely represent the effects of prograde decarbonation and infiltration. All but 2 of 11 analyzed samples exhibit intracrystalline differences in δ¹⁸O (up to 9.4‰), intercrystalline inhomogeneity in δ¹⁸O (up to 12.5‰), and/or disequilibrium oxygen isotope fractionations among calcite-dolomite, calcite-quartz, and calcite-forsterite pairs at the 100-500 μm scale. Inhomogeneities in δ¹⁸O and δ¹³C are poorly correlated with only a single mineral (dolomite) in a single sample exhibiting both. Because of relatively rapid oxygen isotope diffusion in calcite, intracrystalline inhomogeneities in δ¹⁸O likely represent partial equilibration between calcite and fluid during retrograde metamorphism. Calcite is in oxygen isotope exchange equilibrium with forsterite in one of four analyzed samples, in equilibrium with dolomite in none of six analyzed samples, and in equilibrium with quartz in neither of two analyzed samples. There are no samples of contact metamorphic rock with analyzed reactants and products of an arrested metamorphic reaction that are in oxygen isotope equilibrium with each other. The degree of departure from equilibrium in analyzed samples is variable and is often related, at least in part, to alteration of δ¹⁸O of calcite during retrograde fluid-rock reaction. In situ sub-grain-scale carbon and oxygen isotope analyses of minerals are advisable in the common applications of stable isotope geochemistry to metamorphic petrology. Correlation of sub-mm scale stable isotope data with imaging will lead to improved understanding of reaction kinetics, reactive fluid flow, and thermal histories during metamorphism.     

Global effect of irrigation and its impact on the onset of the Indian summer monsoon

In a context of increased demand for food and of climate change, the water consumptions associated with the agricultural practice of irrigation focuses attention. In order to analyze the global influence of irrigation on the water cycle, the land surface model ORCHIDEE is coupled to the GCM LMDZ to simulate the impact of irrigation on climate. A 30-year simulation which takes into account irrigation is compared with a simulation which does not. Differences are usually not significant on average over all land surfaces but hydrological variables are significantly affected by irrigation over some of the main irrigated river basins. Significant impacts over the Mississippi river basin are shown to be contrasted between eastern and western regions. An increase in summer precipitation is simulated over the arid western region in association with enhanced evapotranspiration whereas a decrease in precipitation occurs over the wet eastern part of the basin. Over the Indian peninsula where irrigation is high during winter and spring, a delay of 6?days is found for the mean monsoon onset date when irrigation is activated, leading to a significant decrease in precipitation during May to July. Moreover, the higher decrease occurs in June when the water requirements by crops are maximum, exacerbating water scarcity in this region. A significant cooling of the land surfaces occurs during the period of high irrigation leading to a decrease of the land-sea heat contrast in June, which delays the monsoon onset.     

Evidence for an asteroid–comet continuum from simulations of carbonaceous microxenolith dynamical evolution

Abstract– Micrometeoroids with 100 and 200 μm size dominate the zodiacal cloud dust. Such samples can be studied as micrometeorites, after their passage through the Earth atmosphere, or as microxenoliths, i.e., submillimetric meteorite inclusions. Microxenoliths are samples of the zodiacal cloud dust present in the asteroid Main Belt hundreds of millions years ago. Carbonaceous microxenoliths represent the majority of observed microxenoliths. They have been studied in detail in howardites and H chondrites. We investigate the role of carbonaceous asteroids and Jupiter‐family comets as carbonaceous microxenolith parent bodies. The probability of low velocity collisions of asteroidal and cometary micrometeoroids with selected asteroids is computed, starting from the micrometeoroid steady‐state orbital distributions obtained by dynamical simulations. We selected possible parent bodies of howardites (Vesta) and H chondrites (Hebe, Flora, Eunomia, Koronis, Maria) as target asteroids. Estimates of the asteroidal and cometary micrometeoroid mass between 2 and 4 AU from the Sun are used to compute the micrometeoroid mass influx on each target. The results show that all the target asteroids (except Koronis) receive the same amount (within the uncertainties) of asteroidal and cometary micrometeoroids. Therefore, both these populations should be observed among howardite and H chondrite carbonaceous microxenoliths. However, this is not the case: carbonaceous microxenoliths show differences similar to those existing among different groups of carbonaceous chondrites (e.g., CI, CM, CR) but two sharply distinct populations are not observed. Our results and the observations can be reconciled assuming the existence of a continuum of mineralogical and chemical properties between carbonaceous asteroids and comets.     

Tidal mixing in the Indonesian Seas and its effect on the tropical climate system

The sensitivity of the tropical climate to tidal mixing in the Indonesian Archipelago (IA) is investigated using a coupled general circulation model. It is shown that the introduction of tidal mixing considerably improves water masses properties in the IA, generating fresh and cold anomalies in the thermocline and salty and cold anomalies at the surface. The subsurface fresh anomalies are advected in the Indian Ocean thermocline and ultimately surface to freshen the western part of the basin whereas surface salty anomalies are advected in the Leuwin current to salt waters along the Australian coast. The ~0.5°C surface cooling in the IA reduces by 20% the overlying deep convection. This improves both the amount and structure of the rainfall and weakens the wind convergence over the IA, relaxes the equatorial Pacific trade winds and strengthens the winds along Java coast. These wind changes causes the thermocline to be deeper in the eastern equatorial Pacific and shallower in the eastern Indian Ocean. The El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) amplitude is therefore slightly reduced while the Indian Ocean Dipole/Zonal Mode (IODZM) variability increases. IODZM precursors, related to ENSO events the preceding winter in this model, are also shown to be more efficient in promoting an IODZM thanks to an enhanced wind/thermocline coupling. Changes in the coupled system in response tidal mixing are as large as those found when closing the Indonesian Throughflow, emphasizing the key role of IA on the Indo-Pacific climate.