The Queens' flare: Its structure and development; precursors,pre-flare brightenings,and aftermaths

We continue previous research on the limb flare of 30 April, 1980, 20:20 UT, observed in X-rays by several instruments aboard the Solar Maximum Mission (SMM). It is shown quantitatively that the flare originated in an emerging magnetically confined kernel (diameter ～ 20″) which existed for about ten to fifteen minutes, and from which energetic electrons streamed, in at least two injections, into a previously existing complicated magnetic loop system thus forming a less bright but extended and long-lived tongue. The tongue had a length of ～ 35 000 km and lasted ～ 90 min in X-rays (～ 10 keV); at lower energies (～ 0.7 keV) it was larger (～ 80 000 km) and lasted longer. The total number of energetic electrons (≈ 10³⁷) initially present in the kernel is of the same order as the number present in the tongue after the kernel's decline. This gives evidence that the energetic electrons in the tongue originated mainly in the kernel. The electron number densities in the kernel and tongue at maximum brightness were ～ 4.5 × 10¹¹ and ～ 1 × 10¹¹ cm^#X2212;3, respectively. During the first eight minutes of its existence the tongue was hotter than the kernel, but it cooled off gradually. Its decline in intensity and temperature was exponential; energy was lost by radiation and by conduction through the footpoints of the loop system. These footpoints have a cross-section of only ～ 3 × 10⁶ km². This small value, as well as photographs in a Civ UV emission line, suggests a highly filamentary structure of the system; this is further supported by the finding that the tongue had a ‘filling factor’ of ～ 10^#X2212;2. Several faint X-ray brightenings (? 0.005 of the flare's maximum intensity) were observed at various locations along the solar limb for several hours before and after the flare. At ～ 30 min before the flare's onset a faint (? 0.02) flare precursor occurred, coinciding in place and shape with the flare. First the kernel precursor was brightest but the tongue precursor increased continuously in brightness and was the brightest part of the precursor some 10–15 min after the first visibility of the kernel precursor, until the start of the main flare. This suggests (weak) continuous electron acceleration in the tongue during a period of at least 30 min. The main flare was caused by strong emergence of magnetic field followed by two consecutive field line reconnections and accelerations in a small loop system, causing footpoint heating. Subsequently plasma streamed (convectively) into a pre-existing system of larger loops, forming the tongue.     

Energetics of a compact flare

We study the spatial and spectral characteristics of the 3.5 to 30.0 keV emission in a solar flare of 9 May, 1980. We find that: (a) A classical thick target interpretation of the hard X-ray burst at energies E 10 keV implies that approximately all the electrons contained within the flare loop(s) have to be accelerated per second. (b) A thermal model interpretation does not fit the data, unless its characteristics are such that it does not represent an efficient alternative to the acceleration model. We thus conclude that: (c) Acceleration does take place during the early phase of the impulsive hard X-ray event, but substantial amount of the emission at low (<20 keV) energies is of thermal origin. (d) We show the evolution of the energy content in the flare volume, and find that the energy input requirements are such that 10² erg cm^-3 s^-1 have to be released within the flare structure(s), for a period of time comparable to that of the hard X-ray burst emission. We also point out that although the main flare component ( 90% of the soft X-ray emission) was confined to a compact magnetic kernel, there are evidences of interaction of this structure with a larger field structure connecting towards the leading portion of the active region, where secondary H brightenings were observed.     

Lyman continuum observations of solar flares

A study is made of Lyman continuum observations of solar flares, using data obtained by the Harvard College Observatory EUV spectroheliometer on the Apollo Telescope Mount. We find that there are two main types of flare regions: an overall mean flare coincident with the H flare region, and transient Lyman continuum kernels which can be identified with the H and X-ray kernels observed by other authors. It is found that the ground level hydrogen population in flares is closer to LTE than in the quiet Sun and active regions, and that the level of Lyman continuum formation is lowered in the atmosphere from a mass column density m 5/sx 10^–6 g cm^–2 in the quiet Sun to m 3/sx 10^–4 g cm^–2 in the mean flare, and to m 10^–3g cm^–2 in kernels. From these results we derive the amount of chromospheric material evaporated into the high temperature region, which is found to be - 10¹⁵g, in agreement with observations of X-ray emission measures. A comparison is made between kernel observations and the theoretical predictions made by model heating calculations, available in the literature; significant discrepancies are found between observation and current particle-heating models.     

Soft X-ray emission and chromospheric flares

A study is made of several ATM flares, to investigate the effect of soft X-ray heating at chromospheric levels. It is shown that the amount of energy released in Ly and Lyman continuum emissions, and their spatial and temporal behavior, in compact flares correspond to what is expected from model calculations. An additional source of heating, which could be heat conduction, has to be postulated to explain ribbons of enhanced L and C ii 1336 Å emission in large flares. As expected, the effect of X-ray heating is more important in small compact flares than in large ones.     

High-temperature deformation in the Neoproterozoic transpressional Ribeira belt, southeast Brazil

The Neoproterozoic Ribeira belt is subdivided in two domains with contrasting tectonic characteristics. The northern domain is dominated by shallowly dipping foliations and orogen-normal thrust tectonics. The southern domain is characterized by a 1000-km-long network of anastomosing transcurrent shear zones parallel to the belt. This contrast is interpreted as reflecting continent–continent convergence that is almost orthogonal to the margins in the northern domain and significantly oblique in the southern domain. The central, transitional, domain of the Ribeira belt displays the northern termination of the transcurrent shear zone network: the Além Paraíba–Pádua shear zone system (APPSS). The 250-km-long Além Paraíba–Pádua system involves granulites facies mylonites deformed through transpression.A detailed study of the microstructure and lattice preferred orientation (LPO) of the rock-forming minerals in these granulite mylonites allow a better understanding of deformation mechanisms active at high temperature in the crust. Plagioclase crystals are plastically deformed; they display curved twins and cleavages, mechanical twins, and evidence of dynamic recrystallization. LPO of plagioclase is consistent with activation of the (010) [100] and (010) [001] slip systems. LPO of orthopyroxene and amphibole indicates that these minerals have been deformed through dislocation creep with the activation of the (100) [001] slip system. Quartz in granulite mylonite displays evidence of extensive growth through grain boundary migration. The LPO of quartz is therefore the result of a static transformation of an initial, syn-kinematic LPO, and cannot be straightforwardly interpreted in terms of deformation mechanisms active during mylonitization.     

Insights about the formation of a complex impact structure formed in basalt from numerical modeling: The Vista Alegre structure,southern Brazil

We present the outcomes of simulations of the formation of the Vista Alegre impact structure, Paraná Basin, Brazil. The target comprised a thick sequence of volcanic rocks of predominantly basaltic composition of the Serra Geral Formation that had been deposited on top of sedimentary rocks (sandstones) of the Pirambóia/Botucatu formations. The cratering process was modeled using the iSALE shock physics code. Our best‐fit model suggests that (1) the crater was originally ~10 km in size; (2) it was formed in ~115 s by a stony projectile of 1000 m in diameter, for an assumed impact velocity of 12 km s^?1; (3) target rocks underwent a peak pressure of ~20 GPa, in agreement with previous petrographic investigations of shock deformation. Furthermore, the model points out that the sedimentary strata below the layer of volcanic rocks were raised by ~650 meters at the central part of the crater, which resulted in the current partial exposure of the sandstones at the surface. The outcomes of our modeling suggest that parameters like cohesion and strength of the target rocks, after shock compression, determined the final morphology of the crater, especially the absence of a topographically prominent central peak. Finally, the results of the numerical modeling are roughly in agreement with gravity data over the structure, in particular with respect to the presence of the uplifted sedimentary strata, which are responsible for a low gravity signature at the center of the structure.     

Strategies to Make Methods Based on Flow Injection Analysis Greener

The implementation of flow injection analysis (FIA) systems and correlated techniques in the laboratory routine provides an increase of analytical throughput and the reduction of risks of analyte losses and contamination. Naturally, it contributes to the reduction of reagent consumption and minimization of waste generation. This paper presents and discusses an overview of the main strategies adopted to make methods based on FIA systems more environmentally friendly, and offers a review of these methods that covers the period from January 2002 to December 2019. Strategies based on reagent management (adoption of procedures without reagents, replacement of toxic reagents, recycling and reuse of reagents and, use of immobilized reagents), the online waste treatment, and the improvements of FIA systems (flow system configurations that avoid reagent wastage, use of green detectors, automation, and miniaturization) are approached in this perspective.     

Modélisation glacio-hydrologique et gestion des ressources en eau dans les Andes équatoriennes : l’exemple de Quito

La forte croissance socio-économique de Quito a conduit à d’importants projets de transferts interbassins, intensifiant la mobilisation des ressources d’altitude situées dans des zones écologiques sensibles et connaissant une fonte accélérée des glaciers. Afin d’étudier divers scénarios d’évolutions, nous proposons une modélisation du continuum climat/glacier/hydrologie/gestion des ressources en eau. Utilisant l’outil Water Evaluation and Planning (WEAP), nous avons développé : (1) une modélisation hydro-climatologique semi-distribuée avec des données mensuelles homogénéisées par vectorisation régionale ; (2) une modélisation de la production en eau des glaciers et de leur évolution interannuelle ; (3) une modélisation en unités hydrologiques distinguant différentes couvertures de sols ; et (4) une modélisation de la gestion distinguant droits, allocation et usages de l’eau. Nous présentons les résultats du calage hydrologique mensuel (1963–2006), en étudiant particulièrement l’équifinalité de diverses paramétrisations. Nous montrons la souplesse, la robustesse et les limites de la modélisation proposée, contribuant à cerner différentes incertitudes dans l’évaluation de scénarios prospectifs.