An empirical model for predicting flakiness in cone crushing

A fundamental understanding of the factors influencing particle shape is of central importance for optimisation of the output quality from crushing plants for aggregate production. The literature reports that the wear on and setting of a cone crusher influence particle shape, The fact that wear on and the setting of a cone crusher influence particle shape is considered common knowledge and is also reported in the literature. To date, no mathematical model for predicting particle shape has been presented.     

Elemental and isotopic carbon and nitrogen records of organic matter accumulation in a Holocene permafrost peat sequence in the East European Russian Arctic

A peat deposit from the East European Russian Arctic, spanning nearly 10 000 years, was investigated to study soil organic matter degradation using analyses of bulk elemental and stable isotopic compositions and plant macrofossil remains. The peat accumulated initially in a wet fen that was transformed into a peat plateau bog following aggradation of permafrost in the late Holocene (～2500 cal a BP). Total organic carbon and total nitrogen (N) concentrations are higher in the fen peat than in the moss‐dominated bog peat layers. Layers in the sequence that have lower concentrations of total hydrogen (H) are associated with degraded vascular plant residues. C/N and H/C atomic ratios indicate better preservation of organic matter in peat material dominated by bryophytes as opposed to vascular plants. The presence of permafrost in the peat plateau stage and water‐saturated conditions at the bottom of the fen stage appear to lead to better preservation of organic plant material. δ¹⁵N values suggest N isotopic fractionation was driven primarily by microbial decomposition whereas differences in δ¹³C values appear to reflect mainly changes in plant assemblages. Positive shifts in both δ¹⁵N and δ¹³C values coincide with a local change to drier conditions as a result of the onset of permafrost and frost heave of the peat surface. This pattern suggests that permafrost aggradation not only resulted in changes in vegetation but also aerated the underlying fen peat, which enhanced microbial denitrification, causing the observed ¹⁵N‐enrichment. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Modeling regional sediment transport and shoreline response in the vicinity of tidal inlets on the Long Island coast,United States

A new numerical model was developed to simulate regional sediment transport and shoreline response in the vicinity of tidal inlets based on the one-line theory combined with the reservoir analogy approach for volumetric evolution of inlet shoals. Sand bypassing onshore and sheltering effects on wave action from the inlet bar and shoals were taken into account. The model was applied to unique field data from the south coast of Long Island, United States, including inlet opening and closure. The simulation area extended from Montauk Point to Fire Island Inlet, including Shinnecock and Moriches Inlets. A 20-year long time series of hindcast wave data at three stations along the coast were used as input data to the model. The capacity of the inlet shoals and bars to store sand was estimated based on measured cross-sectional areas of the inlets as well as on comprehensive bathymetric surveys of the areas around the inlet. Several types of sediment sources and sinks were represented, including beach fills, groin systems, jetty blocking, inlet bypassing, and flood shoal and ebb shoal feeding. The model simulations were validated against annual net longshore transport rates reported in the literature, measured shorelines, and recorded sediment volumes in the flood and ebb shoal complexes. Overall, the model simulations were in good agreement with the measured data.     

CAMAM: A Miniature Laser Ablation Ionisation Mass Spectrometer and Microscope‐Camera System for In Situ Investigation of the Composition and Morphology of Extraterrestrial Materials

Performance studies of a microscope‐camera system (MCS) and a laser ablation/ionisation mass spectrometer (LIMS) instrument (referred to here as a laser mass spectrometer or LMS) are presented. These two instruments were designed independently for in situ analysis of solids on planetary surfaces and will be combined to a single miniature instrument suite for in situ chemical and morphological analysis of surface materials on planetary bodies. LMS can perform sensitive chemical (elemental, isotope and molecular) analyses with spatial resolution close to micrometre‐sized grains. It allows for studies with mass resolution (M/ΔM) up to 800 in ablation mode (elemental composition) and up to 1500 in desorption mode (molecular analysis). With an effective dynamic range of at least eight orders of magnitude, sensitive and quantitative measurements can be conducted of almost all elements and isotopes with a concentration larger than a few ppb atoms. Hence, in addition to the major element composition, which is important for the determination of mineralogical constituents of surface materials, trace elements can also be measured to provide information on mineral formation processes. Highly accurate isotope ratio measurements can be used to determine in situ geochronology of sample material and for investigations of various isotope fractionation processes. MCS can conduct optical imagery of mm‐sized objects at several wavelengths with micrometre spatial resolution for the characterisation of morphological surface details and to provide insight into surface mineralogy. Furthermore, MCS can help in the selection of sample surface areas for further mass spectrometric analysis of the chemical composition. Surface auto‐fluorescence measurements and images in polarised light are additional capabilities of the MCS, to identify either fluorescing minerals or organic materials, if present on the analysed surface, for further investigation by LMS. The results obtained by investigations of NIST reference materials, amino acid films and a natural graphite sample embedded in silicate rock are presented to illustrate the performance of the instruments and their potential to deliver chemical information for mineral and organic phases in their geological context.     

Calculation of beach change under interacting cross-shore and longshore processes

This paper presents a mathematical approach and numerical model that simulates beach and dune change in response to cross-shore processes of dune growth by wind and dune erosion by storms, and by gradients in longshore sand transport that will alter shoreline position. Sub-aerial transport processes are represented, whereas sub-aqueous transport is neglected. The system is tightly coupled morphologically, with the berm playing a central role. For example, the potential for sand to be transported to the dune by wind depends on berm width, and sand lost in erosion of the dune during storms can widen the berm. Morphologic equilibrium considerations are introduced to improve reliability of predictions and stability of the non-linear model. An analytical solution is given under simplification to illustrate properties of the model. Sensitivity tests with the numerical solution of the coupled equations demonstrate model performance, with one test exploring beach and dune response to potential increase in storm-wave height with global warming. Finally, the numerical model is applied to examine the consequences of groin shortening at Westhampton Beach, Long Island, New York, as an alternative for providing a sand supply to the down-drift beach. Results indicate that the sand will be released over several decades as the shoreline and dune move landward in adjustment to the new equilibrium condition with the shortened groins.     

Note on Coriolis-Stokes force and energy

In this study, we consider the origin of the Coriolis-Stokes (CS) force in the wave-averaged momentum and energy equations and make a short analysis of possible energy input to the ocean circulation (i.e., Eulerian mean velocity) from the CS force. Essentially, we find that the CS force appears naturally when considering vertically integrated quantities and that the CS force will not provide any energy input into the system for this case. However, by including the “Hasselmann force”, we show some inconsistencies regarding the vertical structure of the CS force in the Eulerian framework and find that there is a distinct vertical structure of the energy input and that the net input strongly depends on whether the wave zone is included in the analysis or not. We therefore question the introduction of the “Hasselmann force” into the system of equations, as the CS force appears naturally in the vertically integrated equations or when Lagrangian vertical coordinates are used.     

Digital Terrain Model Resolution and its Influence on Estimating the Extent of Rockfall Areas

As rockfall can cause a great deal of damage, it is essential to know its spatial propagation. Rockfall models are sensitive to the resolution of input data, i.e. the Digital Terrain Model (DTM) used. Nowadays, high resolution elevation data are available area‐wide from airborne laser scanning (ALS). However, rockfall models are designed for analysis on a certain scale, which means that high resolution input might not necessarily improve model results (e.g. for regional scale studies). Our aim is to estimate the reach of rockfall by analysing different input resolutions of an ALS DTM. The presented empirically–based model, implemented in Python 2.7, is a modified version of the zenital method including an iterative random walk trajectory model, which is designed for rockfall hazard assessment at the regional scale. Trajectories and rockfall probability maps are generated for selected DTM input resolutions. The comparison shows that high resolution DTMs do consider local topography better and thus lead to more realistic results than low resolution DTMs.     

Combining airborne and terrestrial laser scanning for quantifying erosion and deposition by a debris flow event

We quantified the sediment volume transported by a major debris flow event in the Halltal, Austrian Alps, using a combination of terrestrial (TLS) and airborne laser scanning (ALS) which has rarely been carried out before. A digital terrain model (DTM) derived from ALS data (pre-event surface) was combined with a DTM derived from TLS data (post-event surface). Both datasets were aligned and compared in a cut and fill analysis estimating differential volumes.The main focus lay on the evaluation and accuracy assessment of the applied method. Tie-point based registration of both datasets proved to be insufficient; additional alignment by Multi Station Adjustment was necessary to minimise the averaged height error between both datasets, amounting for a volumetric error of less than 10% which is comparable to pure ALS-campaigns. Larger errors were estimated for complex terrain with low scanning resolutions. A particular problem in data processing was the low and dense shrub vegetation in the study area which required a specifically adapted filter algorithm. An insufficient ground representation was observed for the ALS-data overestimating ground heights for averaged 70 cm. Despite these limitations, the approach proved to be suitable for accurate extreme event quantification.The starting zones of the debris flows lie at the bedrock-debris interface where runoff is concentrated. Volumes of 5000 to 12,000 m³ were assessed. Volume estimation worked better for the erosional than for the depositional features; this is because the erosional gullies are relatively deep and the calculation is not affected by pre-event vegetation. While erosion and sedimentation are balanced for one of the three catchments investigated, the deposited volumes are higher than the detected eroded volumes for the other two. The reasons are not fully understood. The magnitude of the flows was determined by catchment size, topographical characteristics and deforestation by a major wildfire in 1946.     

Identifying landslide preconditions in Swedish quick clays—insights from integration of surface geophysical,core sample- and downhole property measurements

Quick-clay landslides are a serious geohazard in Canada, Norway and Sweden. Identification and mapping of quick clays are essential endeavours because the damage caused by an individual landslide can be large and costly, with potentially fatal consequences. We collected geophysical borehole and soil core data from an area prone to quick-clay landslides in southwestern Sweden. Methodologies included in situ and laboratory measurements, providing information about natural gamma radiation, sonic velocities, electrical conductivity, pH, physical grain size, elemental and mineral composition, magnetic properties, cation exchange capacity and fossil content. A stratigraphic thickness of almost 60 m enables us to study quick clays and their host environment in Sweden at unusually high resolution. Results identify the origin and location of reflections in nearby seismic lines and assign physico-chemical properties to the geological units present in the area. We show that coarse-grained layers are sandwiched between marine clays (some of which are quick clays). These layers function as a conduit for relatively fresh water that infiltrates the marine clays and chemically destabilizes them by leaching out their salts. The salinity distribution in the boreholes indicate that the groundwater movement is downwards, through the coarse-grained layer and towards the Göta river. The presence of these materials is important for the development of quick clays, although not a prerequisite. With the help of surface geophysical methods, the location of the coarse-grained layers can be known faster and more economically, which could be relevant for studying the potential for quick-clay landslide occurrence over large areas.     

Phantom midge-based models for inferring past fish abundances

We sampled living and subfossil phantom midge (Diptera: Chaoboridae) larvae from surface sediments of 21 small lakes in Southern Sweden to examine the influence of fish and selected abiotic variables on the abundance and species composition of chaoborid assemblages. We expected total Chaoborus abundance to be inversely correlated with fish abundance and Chaoborus species most sensitive to fish predation to be found only in fishless lakes. We aimed to use the observed relationships to develop models to reconstruct past fish abundances from chaoborid remains and the abiotic environment. C. flavicans occurred in almost every lake, whereas subfossil C. obscuripes were found in the surface sediments of only one fishless lake. The density of living C. flavicans larvae correlated negatively with fish abundance, lake order and size. The concentration of C. flavicans subfossils was negatively associated with pH, lake size, water transparency and fish abundance. Regression models that included lake morphometry and landscape position as additional predictors of fish abundance performed better than models that used only Chaoborus predictors. The explained variance in fish abundance varied from 52 to 86%. Leave-one-out cross-validation indicated moderate performance of the two best models. These models explained 51 and 56% of the observed untransformed fish density and biomass, respectively. In addition, all Chaoborus models were unbiased in closely following the 1:1 reference line in plots of observed versus predicted values. These results are a promising step in developing midge-based paleolimnological reconstructions of past fish abundance, and the approach might be improved by including chironomid remains in the models.