Residential energy consumption and associated carbon emission in forest rural area in China: A case study in Weichang County

Rural energy consumption in China has increased dramatically in the last decades, and has become a significant contributor of carbon emissions. Yet there is limited data on energy consumption patterns and their evolution in forest rural areas of China. In order to bridge this gap, we report the findings of field surveys in forest villages in Weichang County as a case study of rural energy consumption in northern China. We found that the residential energy consumption per household is 3313 kgce yr-1(kilogram standard coal equivalent per year), with energy content of 9.7 × 107 kJ yr-1, including 1783 kgce yr-1 from coal, 1386 kgce yr-1 from fuel wood, 96 kgce yr-1 from electricity, and 49 kgce yr-1 from LPG. Per capita consumption is 909 kgce yr-1 and its energy content is 2.7 × 107 kJ yr-1. Due to a total energy utilization efficiency of 24.6%, all the consumed energy can only supply about 2.4 × 107 kJ yr-1 of efficient energy content. Secondly, household energy consumption is partitioned into 2614 kgce yr-1 for heating, 616 kgce yr-1 for cooking, and 117 kgce yr-1 for home appliances. Thirdly, the associated carbon emissions per household are 2556 kgC yr-1, including1022 kgC yr-1 from unutilized fuel wood(90% of the total fuel wood). The rest of emissions come from the use of electricity(212 kgC yr-1), coal(1301 kgC yr-1) and LPG(21 kgC yr-1). Fourthly, local climate, family size and household income have strong influences on rural residential energy consumption. Changes in storage and utilization practices of fuel can lead to the 10%-30% increase in the efficiency of fuel wood use, leading to reduced energy consumption by 924 kgce yr-1 per household(27.9% reduction) and 901 kgC yr-1 of carbon emissions(35.3% reduction).     

The chemical variability at the surface of Mars: Implication for sediment formation and rock weathering

Compositional data analysis was performed on chemical compositions of martian surface materials in order to unravel scenarios of past and present weathering and to evaluate the role of meteoritic accumulation. The observed chemical variability is analyzed by means of principal component analysis. Potential reservoirs that may have contributed primary material to soil formation are assessed. Chemical alteration in the course of in situ weathering is described in terms of alteration vectors that link the compositions of fresh rocks and their weathering crusts. The interplay of localized chemical alteration and global scale re-distribution and mixing of fines material is documented through the identification of different soil forming branches. These branches emanate from distinct compositional domains, which comprise basaltic and basalt-andesitic primary materials, and they converge to a global dust composition, which represents the product of chemical and physical disintegration and subsequent global mixing. Mass balance considerations applied to localized weathering phenomena are in line with findings from experimental acid-sulfate weathering on olivine-bearing basalts and the persistence of secondary silica in evaporitic rocks. In addition the composition and oxidation state of involved volcanic gases is deduced. Our findings corroborate the past activity of volcanic exhalation products in combination with liquid water. We conclude that average martian crust is dominated by basaltic materials at its topmost level and that the amount of meteoritic accumulation may contribute about 6 wt% to the martian fines. From the meteoritic contribution minimum soil formation rates of 60±20 cm/Gyr are derived. Sequestration of atmospheric oxygen during weathering of primary materials may account for the oxygen deficiency of the martian atmosphere. A 4-14-m-thick layer of oxidized martian fines may account for the estimated deficit of 1.7×¹⁰¹⁸ mol O₂ in the martian atmosphere depending on the primary oxidation state of volatile volcanic emanations.     

The Cali meteorite fall: A new H/L ordinary chondrite

Abstract— The fall of the Cali meteorite took place on 6 July 2007 at 16 h 32 ± 1 min local time (21 h 32 ± 1 min UTC). A daylight fireball was witnessed by hundreds of people in the Cauca Valley in Colombia from which 10 meteorite samples with a total mass of 478 g were recovered near 3°24.3′N, 76°30.6′W. The fireball trajectory and radiant have been reconstructed with moderate accuracy. From the computed radiant and from considering various plausible velocities, we obtained a range of orbital solutions that suggest that the Cali progenitor meteoroid probably originated in the main asteroid belt. Based on petrography, mineral chemistry, magnetic susceptibility, thermoluminescence, and bulk chemistry, the Cali meteorite is classified as an H/L4 ordinary chondrite breccia.     

Petrographic and geochemical evidence for multiphase formation of carbonates in the Martian orthopyroxenite Allan Hills 84001

Martian meteorites can provide valuable information about past environmental conditions on Mars. Allan Hills 84001 formed more than 4 Gyr ago, and owing to its age and long exposure to the Martian environment, and this meteorite has features that may record early processes. These features include a highly fractured texture, gases trapped during one or more impact events or during formation of the rock, and spherical Fe‐Mg‐Ca carbonates. In this study, we have concentrated on providing new insights into the context of these carbonates using a range of techniques to explore whether they record multiple precipitation and shock events. The petrographic features and compositional properties of these carbonates indicate that at least two pulses of Mg‐ and Fe‐rich solutions saturated the rock. Those two generations of carbonates can be distinguished by a very sharp change in compositions, from being rich in Mg and poor in Fe and Mn, to being poor in Mg and rich in Fe and Mn. Between these two generations of carbonate is evidence for fracturing and local corrosion.     

Annama H chondrite—Mineralogy,physical properties,cosmic ray exposure,and parent body history

The fall of the Annama meteorite occurred early morning (local time) on April 19, 2014 on the Kola Peninsula (Russia). Based on mineralogy and physical properties, Annama is a typical H chondrite. It has a high Ar‐Ar age of 4.4 Ga. Its cosmic ray exposure history is atypical as it is not part of the large group of H chondrites with a prominent 7–8 Ma peak in the exposure age histograms. Instead, its exposure age is within uncertainty of a smaller peak at 30 ± 4 Ma. The results from short‐lived radionuclides are compatible with an atmospheric pre‐entry radius of 30–40 cm. However, based on noble gas and cosmogenic radionuclide data, Annama must have been part of a larger body (radius >65 cm) for a large part of its cosmic ray exposure history. The ¹⁰Be concentration indicates a recent (3–5 Ma) breakup which may be responsible for the Annama parent body size reduction to 30–35 cm pre‐entry radius.     

A radar survey of M- and X-class asteroids

We observed ten M- and X-class main-belt asteroids with the Arecibo Observatory's S-band (12.6 cm) radar. The X-class asteroids were targeted based on their albedos or other properties which suggested they might be M-class. This work brings the total number of main-belt M-class asteroids observed with radar to 14. We find that three of these asteroids have rotation rates significantly different from what was previously reported. Based on their high radar albedo, we find that only four of the fourteen—16 Psyche, 216 Kleopatra, 758 Mancunia, and 785 Zwetana—are almost certainly metallic. 129 Antigone has a moderately high radar albedo and we suggest it may be a CH/CB/Bencubbinite parent body. Three other asteroids, 97 Klotho, 224 Oceana, and 796 Sarita have radar albedos significantly higher than the average main belt asteroid and we cannot rule out a significant metal content for them. Five of our target asteroids, 16 Psyche, 129 Antigone, 135 Hertha, 758 Mancunia, and 785 Zwetana, show variations in their radar albedo with rotation. We can rule out shape and composition in most cases, leaving variations in thickness, porosity, or surface roughness of the regolith to be the most likely causes. With the exception of 129 Antigone, we find no hydrated M-class asteroids (W-class; Rivkin, A.S., Howell, E.S., Lebofsky, L.A., Clark, B.E., Britt, D.T., 2000. Icarus 145, 351-368) to have high radar albedos.     

Asteroid 2002NY40 as a source of meteorite-dropping bolides

The existence of asteroidal meteoroid streams capable of producing meteorite-dropping bolides has long being invoked, but evidence is scarce. Recent modelling of previously reported associations suggests that the time-scales to keep the orbital coherence of these streams producing meteorites are too short. We present an unequivocal association between near earth object (NEO) 2002NY40 and at least one bright fireball detected over Finland in 2006 August. Another two additional fireballs recorded from Spain and Finland seem to be related, together producing a fireball-producing stream (β Aquarids). On the basis of historical data, the 2006 finding suggests the existence of a meteoroid complex capable of producing meteorites. Taking into account present time-scales for orbital decoherence, if 2002NY40 has large meteoroids associated with it, such behaviour would be the consequence of a relatively recent asteroidal fragmentation. Supporting our claim, the heliocentric orbits of two recently discovered NEOs, 2004NL8 and 2002NY40, were found to exhibit a good similarity to each other and also to the orbits of the three bolides. The fireball spectra of the two Finish bolides showed that the chemical abundances of these objects are consistent with the main elements found in chondrites. This result is consistent with the probable Low iron, Low metal (LL) chondritic mineralogy of asteroid 2002NY40. Consequently, this asteroid may be delivering LL chondrites to the Earth. Additional fireball reports found in the literature suggest that the associated β Aquarid complex may have been delivering meteorites to the Earth during, at least, the last millennium.     

Seeable universe and its accelerated expansion: an observational test

From the equivalence principle, one gets the strength of the gravitational effect of a mass M on the metric at position r from it. It is proportional to the dimensionless parameter β ²=2GM/rc ², which normally is ?1. Here G is the gravitational constant, M the mass of the gravitating body, r the position of the metric from the gravitating body and c the speed of light. The seeable universe is the sphere, with center at the observer, having a size such that it shall contain all light emitted within it. For this to occur one can impose that the gravitational effect on the velocity of light at r is zero for the radial component, and non zero for the tangential one. Light is then trapped. The condition is given by the equality R _g =2GM/c ², where R _g represents the radius of the seeable universe. It is the gravitational radius of the mass M. The result has been presented elsewhere as the condition for the universe to be treated as a black hole. According to present observations, for the case of our universe taken as flat (k=0), and the equation of state as p=?ρc ², we prove here from the Einstein’s cosmological equations that the universe is expanding in an accelerated way as t ², a constant acceleration as has been observed. This implies that the gravitational radius of the universe (at the event horizon) expands as t ². Taking c as constant, observing the galaxies deep in space this means deep in time as ct, linear. Then, far away galaxies from the observer that we see today will disappear in time as they get out of the distance ct that is <R _g . The accelerated expanding vacuum will drag them out of sight. This may be a valid test for the present ideas in cosmology. Previous calculations are here halved by our results.     

Cenozoic tectosedimentary evolution of Mallorca island

Abstract

The results of recent biostratigraphic, sedimentologic and structural work concerning the island of Mallorca have led us to elaborate a synthesis of the Cenozoic tectosedimentary evolution of this area. The recognition in the field of several unconformities enabled us to distinguish four Depositional Sequences embracing the pre and syntectonic deposits.

From Paleocene to part of Middle Eocene there was no sedimentation in the Mallorca area. This stratigraphie gap follows the onset of Africa-Europe convergence.

The area was stable during the first sequence (Upper Lutetian-Bartonian), which is trangressive towards the NW. Tectonic activity is recorded by the conglomeratic wedges of Depositional Sequence 11 (Priabonian-Lower Chattian). A dramatic paleogeographic change ocurred between Depositional Sequence II and III. Observed thrusts and unstable platform sediments of Depositional Sequence III (Upper Chattian-Lo-wermost Burdigalian) indicate the onset of thrust tectonics in the area. Turbiditic deposits of Depositional Sequence IV (Burdigalian-Langhian) are clearly syntectonic. Post-orogenic deposits range from Serravalian to recent and are not discussed in this paper.

Synthetic regional geological cross-sections have been constructed. They are used to restore the cartographic structural units to their relative pre-tectonic position and a palinspastic map for each Depositional Sequence has been obtained. These maps show both the sedimentary environment distribution and the active tectonic structures; hence they illustrate the tectosedimentary evolution of the Mallorca area through the Cenozoic.

This work has evident limitations arising from the small area studied in relation to the Cenozoic Betic basin and from the lacking subsurface data.