Energy dissipation in oscillatory flow over rippled beds

Measurements of energy dissipation have been made with an oscillating tray apparatus similar to that of Bagnold (1946). Two different bed profiles were examined: one was sinusoidal and the other consisted of fins projecting perpendicularly fromthe plate in a regular two-dimensional pattern. The tests with the sinusoidal profile showed that significant variation in energy dissipation coefficient with Reynolds number occurs near the point at which vortex formation first starts to take place. It is suggested that Bagnold did not observe this effect because of the particular profile used in his tests. The tests with the finned beds showed that even when vortex formation is fully developed there is still some variation in energy dissipation coefficient with Reynolds number, at constant a/k_s, at high Reynolds numbers.     

Factors affecting the distribution and abundance of Macrobrachium petersi (Hilgendorf) in the Keiskamma River and estuary,South Africa

A dry (1979–1980) and a wet (1980–1981) season had a marked effect on the freshwater inflow into the Keiskamma estuary. Under low inflow conditions, which results in elevated salinities in the upper reaches, an upstream migration of adult Macrobrachium petersi (Hilgendorf) to freshwater takes place. During periods of increased river inflow adult M. petersi move downstream to the more saline reaches of the estuary. These two migratory responses have been interpreted as (a) a breeding migration under high inflow conditions which ensures that larvae are in close proximity to salinities that favour growth and development, and (b) an adult upstream migration back to freshwater to escape elevated estuarine salinities as a result of the low freshwater inflow.     

Asymmetrical breakwater gap wave diffraction using finite and infinite elements

An experimental technique and configuration has been developed by the author to simulate and measure (using short range photogrammetric techniques) the wave heights of waves diffracting into a model basin of infinite extent. The finite and infinite element program “WAVE” developed in the Department of Civil Engineering, University College of Swansea, Wales, has been modified to run on the UNIVAC 1100 at the University of Cape Town. The program is used to model the experimental configuration being tested mathematically. Two configurations, namely a symmetrical and an asymmetrical breakwater gap configuration, are analysed both experimentally and numerically. It is concluded that there is a good correlation between the finite element and experimental results and that the “WAVE” program is a very useful tool for the prediction of wave heights in large harbour basins.     

CO2 transfer between the upper mantle and the atmosphere: temporary storage in the lower continental crust

The CO₂ atmospheric content has shown large variations over geological times. High contents (up to one order of magnitude more than present-day values) ultimately correspond to discrete episodes of mantle degassing, either juvenile, or subduction-related (carbon recycling). A number of arguments (e.g. the continuous volume increase of carbonate-bearing sediments with time) suggest that, throughout the Earth's history, juvenile CO₂ has formed a major contribution to the global carbon budget of the Earth.
The absence of a direct relationship between major volcanic episodes and the average CO₂ atmospheric content suggests that volcanoes might not be the only way by which mantle CO₂ is transported to the surface. It is proposed that large quantities of juvenile CO₂ could temporarily be stored in the lower continental crust during major episodes of granulite formation. These are primarily caused by magmatic underplating and they result in a vertical accretion of the crust by accumulation of CO₂-bearing, mantle-derived magmas. Most of the CO₂ migrates through the crust during post-metamorphic evolution and isostatic restoration of the normal continental thickness. However, large quantities of CO₂ can still be present in some areas, notably as high-density fluids enclosed in minerals.     

On the structure of the Ivrea-Verbano Zone (northern Italy) and its implications for present-day lower continental crust geometry

The Ivrea-Verbano Zone in northern Italy represents a section through the lower continental crust which has been tilted and emplaced into its present position during the Alpine orogeny. Recent and on-going structurally-oriented geological mapping in this region is providing new information about the geometry of the complex. The central part of the zone is dominated by a large basic complex (the 'mafic formation') which is intrusive into the surrounding gneisses. The foliation within the envelope of gneisses is deflected around the intrusive complex as if by ballooning, but in the region south-west of Monte Capio both units are folded together into a tight to isoclinal steeply plunging fold with an amplitude of c. 10 km. This fold locally inverts the stratigraphy of the layered basic group of the complex, and is thought to be the result of gravitational collapse following intrusion and inflation of a large magma body into the lower crust.
Several high-temperature shear zones have now been traced within the country rock for distances up to 20 km. The geometry of these, and their relationship to the basic complex suggests that at least some of the extensional collapse of the mafic body is related to uplift caused by intrusion of this body.
Close parallels can be drawn between the observed structure in the Ivrea-Verbano Zone (after removing the effects of late, low-temperature faulting and folding related to emplacement of the rocks into their present position), and those inferred from deep seismic reflection profiling in areas of current extension such as parts of the US Basin and Range province.     

Simulating methane emission from a Chinese rice field as influenced by fertilizer and water level

Natural and agricultural wetlands are considered to be the major sources of global atmospheric methane (CH₄). A one‐dimensional model was developed to simulate methane emission and used to examine the influence of various physical processes on the rate of methane emission. Three processes involved in the methane emission are implemented in the model: production, reoxidation and transport. Three transport pathways were considered: diffusion across water–air or soil–air interfaces, ebullition and diffusion through plants. These pathways are influenced by soil properties, plant growth, water‐table conditions, temperature and external inputs (e.g. fertilizer). The model was used to examine the seasonal variation of the methane emission at a rice field in Hunan, China, which was observed during a field experiment for consecutive (early and late) rice seasons in 1992. The observed seasonal variations of methane emission, and role of plants in transporting methane to the atmosphere, are captured by the model simulation. Further model applications were conducted to simulate effects of fertilizer and water‐level condition on the methane emission. The results indicate that unfermented organic fertilizer produces a higher methane emission rate than mineral fertilizer. The simulations with treatments of a deep‐water covering and constant moisture reduced the methane emission. The rice field study provides a framework for further development of the model towards simulations based on spatially distributed variables (e.g. water table, soil temperature and vegetation) at a regional scale. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The estimation of the shape of an array using a hidden Markov model

A hidden Markov model (HMM) technique for the estimation of the shape of a towed array is presented. It is assumed that there is a far-field source radiating sound containing possibly weak spectral lines. The technique uses either the Fourier coefficients at a given frequency computed from a single time block or the maximal eigenvector of a sample spectral covariance matrix. The technique is illustrated using several simulations. The results of these simulations indicate that the HMM technique yields shape and bearing estimates more accurate than those provided by a maximum-likelihood array shape estimation technique     

40Ar/39Ar and oxygen isotope studies of polymetamorphism from Tinos Island, Cycladic blueschist belt, Greece

Abstract Petrological, oxygen isotope and ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar studies were used to constrain the Tertiary metamorphic evolution of the lower tectonic unit of the Cyclades on Tinos. Polyphase high-pressure metamorphism reached pressures in excess of 15 kbar, based on measurements of the Si content in potassic white mica. Temperatures of 450–500° C at the thermal peak of high-pressure metamorphism were estimated from critical metamorphic assemblages, the validity of which is confirmed by a quartz–magnetite oxygen isotope temperature of 470° C. Some ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar spectra of white mica give plateau ages of 44–40 Ma that are considered to represent dynamic recrystallization under peak or slightly post-peak high-pressure metamorphic conditions. Early stages in the prograde high-pressure evolution may be documented by older apparent ages in the high-temperature steps of some spectra. Eclogite to epidote blueschist facies mineralogies were partially or totally replaced by retrograde greenschist facies assemblages during exhumation. Oxygen isotope thermometry of four quartz–magnetite pairs from greenschist samples gives temperatures of 440–470° C which cannot be distinguished from those deduced for the high-pressure event. The exhumation and overprint is documented by decreasing ages of 32–28 Ma in some greenschists and late-stage blueschist rocks, and ages of 30–20 Ma in the lower temperature steps of the Ar release patterns of blueschist micas. Almost flat parts of Ar–Ar release spectra of some greenschist micas gave ages of 23–21 Ma which are assumed to represent incomplete resetting caused by a renewed prograde phase of greenschist metamorphism. Oxygen isotope compositions of blueschist and greenschist facies minerals show no evidence for the infiltration of a δ¹⁸O-enriched fluid. Rather, the compositions indicate that fluid to rock ratios were very low, the isotopic compositions being primarily controlled by those of the protolith rocks. We assume that the fundamental control catalysing the transformation of blueschists into greenschists and the associated resetting of their isotopic systems was the selective infiltration of metamorphic fluid. A quartz–magnetite sample from a contact metamorphic skarn, taken near the Miocene monzogranite of Tinos, gave an oxygen isotope temperature of 555° C and calculated water composition of 9.1%. The value of δ¹⁸O obtained from this water is consistent with a primary magmatic fluid, but is lower than that of fluids associated with the greenschist overprint, which indicates that the latter event cannot be directly related to the monozogranite intrusion.