Io: Heat flow from dark paterae

Dark paterae on the jovian satellite Io are evidence of recent volcanic activity. Some paterae appear to be entirely filled with dark volcanic material, while others have only partially darkened floors. Dark paterae have area and heat flow longitudinal distributions that are bimodal as well as anti-correlated with the longitudinal distribution of mountains on Io at a global scale. As part of our study of Io’s total heat flow, we have examined the darkest paterae and quantified their thermal emission in order to assess their contribution. This is the first time that the areas of the dark material in these paterae have been measured with such precision and correlated with their thermal emission. Dark paterae yield a significantly larger contribution to Io’s heat flow than dark volcanic fields. Dark paterae (including Loki Patera) yield at least ∼4 × 10¹³ W or ∼40% of Io’s total heat flow. In comparison, dark flow fields yield ∼10¹³ W or ∼10% of Io’s total heat flow. Of the total heat loss from dark paterae, Loki Patera alone yields ∼10¹³ W or ∼10% of Io’s total thermal emission.     

Reference hydrologic networks II. Using reference hydrologic networks to assess climate-driven changes in streamflow

Abstract

Reference hydrologic networks (RHNs) can play an important role in monitoring for changes in the hydrological regime related to climate variation and change. Currently, the literature concerning hydrological response to climate variations is complex and confounded by the combinations of many methods of analysis, wide variations in hydrology, and the inclusion of data series that include changes in land use, storage regulation and water use in addition to those of climate. Three case studies that illustrate a variety of approaches to the analysis of data from RHNs are presented and used, together with a summary of studies from the literature, to develop approaches for the investigation of changes in the hydrological regime at a continental or global scale, particularly for international comparison. We present recommendations for an analysis framework and the next steps to advance such an initiative. There is a particular focus on the desirability of establishing standardized procedures and methodologies for both the creation of new national RHNs and the systematic analysis of data derived from a collection of RHNs.

Editor Z.W. Kundzewicz; Associate editor K. Hamed

Citation Burn, D. H., et al., 2012 Whitfield, P.H. 2012. Reference hydrologic networks, I. The status of national reference hydrologic networks for detecting trends and future directions. Hydrological Sciences Journal, 57(8) this issue[Taylor & Francis Online] , [Google Scholar]. Reference hydrologic networks II. Using reference hydrologic networks to assess climate-driven changes in streamflow. Hydrological Sciences Journal, 57 (8), 1580–1593.     

A modal α2-dynamo in the limit of asymptotically small viscosity

Abstract

A spherical α²-dynamo is presented as an expansion in the free decay modes of the magnetic field. In the limit of vanishing viscosity the momentum equation yields various asymptotic expansions for the flow, depending on the precise form of the dissipation and boundary conditions applied. A new form for the dissipation is introduced that greatly simplifies this asymptotic expansion. When these expansions are substituted back into the induction equation, a set of modal amplitude equations is derived, and solved for various distributions of the α-effect. For all choices of α the solutions approach the Taylor state, but the manner in which this occurs can vary, as previously found by Soward and Jones (1983). Furthermore, as hypothesized by Malkus and Proctor (1975), but not previously demonstrated, the post-Taylor equilibration is indeed independent of the viscosity in the asymptotic limit, and depending on the choice of a may be either steady-state or oscillatory.     

Quantifying local flow direction uncertainty

Absolute elevation error in digital elevation models (DEMs) can be within acceptable National Map Accuracy standards, but still have dramatic impacts on field-level estimates of surface water flow direction, particularly in level regions. We introduce and evaluate a new method for quantifying uncertainty in flow direction rasters derived from DEMs. The method utilizes flow direction values derived from finer resolution digital elevation data to estimate uncertainty, on a cell-by-cell basis, in flow directions derived from coarser digital elevation data. The result is a quantification and spatial distribution of flow direction uncertainty at both local and regional scales. We present an implementation of the method using a 10-m DEM and a reference 1-m lidar DEM. The method contributes to scientific understanding of DEM uncertainty propagation and modeling and can inform hydrological analyses in engineering, agriculture, and other disciplines that rely on simulations of surface water flow.     

Seasonal change on Saturn from Cassini/CIRS observations, 2004-2009

Five years of thermal infrared spectra from the Cassini Composite Infrared Spectrometer (CIRS) are analyzed to determine the response of Saturn’s atmosphere to seasonal changes in insolation. Hemispheric mapping sequences at 15.0 cm⁻¹ spectral resolution are used to retrieve the variation in the zonal mean temperatures in the stratosphere (0.5-5.0 mbar) and upper troposphere (75-800 mbar) between October 2004 (shortly after the summer solstice in the southern hemisphere) and July 2009 (shortly before the autumnal equinox).Saturn’s northern mid-latitudes show signs of dramatic warming in the stratosphere (by 6-10 K) as they emerge from ring-shadow into springtime conditions, whereas southern mid-latitudes show evidence for cooling (4-6 K). The 40-K asymmetry in stratospheric temperatures between northern and southern hemispheres (at 1 mbar) slowly decreased during the timespan of the observations. Tropospheric temperatures also show temporal variations but with a smaller range, consistent with the increasing radiative time constant of the atmospheric response with increasing pressure. The tropospheric response to the insolation changes shows the largest magnitude at the locations of the broad retrograde jets. Saturn’s warm south-polar stratospheric hood has cooled over the course of the mission, but remains present.Stratospheric temperatures are compared to a radiative climate model which accounts for the spatial distribution of the stratospheric coolants. The model successfully predicts the magnitude and morphology of the observed changes at most latitudes. However, the model fails at locations where strong dynamical perturbations dominate the temporal changes in the thermal field, such as the hot polar vortices and the equatorial semi-annual oscillation (Orton, G., and 27 colleagues [2008]. Nature 453, 196-198). Furthermore, observed temperatures in Saturn’s ring-shadowed regions are larger than predicted by all radiative-climate models to date due to the incomplete characterization of the dynamical response to the shadow. Finally, far-infrared CIRS spectra are used to demonstrate variability of the para-hydrogen distribution over the 5-year span of the dataset, which may be related to observed changes in Saturn’s tropospheric haze in the spring hemisphere.     

A multi-wavelength study of the 2009 impact on Jupiter: Comparison of high resolution images from Gemini,Keck and HST

Within several days of A. Wesley’s announcement that Jupiter was hit by an object on UT 19 July 2009, we observed the impact site with (1) the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) at UV through visible (225–924 nm) wavelengths, (2) the 10-m W.M. Keck II telescope in the near-infrared (1–5 μm), and (3) the 8-m Gemini-North telescope in the mid-infrared (7.7–18 μm). All observations reported here were obtained between 22 and 25 July 2009. Observations at visible and near-infrared wavelengths show that large (～0.75-μm radius) dark (imaginary index of refraction m_i ～ 0.01–0.1) particulates were deposited at atmospheric pressures between 10 and 200–300 mbar; analysis of HST-UV data reveals that in addition smaller-sized (～0.1 μm radius) material must have been deposited at the highest altitudes (～10 mbar). Differences in morphology between the UV and visible/near-IR images suggest three-dimensional variations in particle size and density across the impact site, which probably were induced during the explosion and associated events. At mid-infrared wavelengths the brightness temperature increased due to both an enhancement in the stratospheric NH₃ gas abundance and the physical temperature of the atmosphere. This high brightness temperature coincides with the center part of the impact site as seen with HST. This observation, combined with (published) numerical simulations of the Shoemaker-Levy 9 impacts on Jupiter and the Tunguska airburst on Earth, suggests that the downward jet from the terminal explosion probably penetrated down to the ～700-mbar level.     

The composition of Titan's stratosphere from Cassini/CIRS mid-infrared spectra

We have analyzed data recorded by the Composite Infrared Spectrometer (CIRS) aboard the Cassini spacecraft during the Titan flybys T0-T10 (July 2004-January 2006). The spectra characterize various regions on Titan from 70° S to 70° N with a variety of emission angles. We study the molecular signatures observed in the mid-infrared CIRS detector arrays (FP3 and FP4, covering roughly the 600-1500 cm⁻¹ spectral range with apodized resolutions of 2.54 or 0.53 cm⁻¹). The composite spectrum shows several molecular signatures: hydrocarbons, nitriles and CO₂. A firm detection of benzene (C₆H₆) is provided by CIRS at levels of about 3.5×¹⁰⁻⁹ around 70° N. We have used temperature profiles retrieved from the inversion of the emission observed in the methane ν₄ band at 1304 cm⁻¹ and a line-by-line radiative transfer code to infer the abundances of the trace constituents and some of their isotopes in Titan's stratosphere. No longitudinal variations were found for these gases. Little or no change is observed generally in their abundances from the south to the equator. On the other hand, meridional variations retrieved for these trace constituents from the equator to the North ranged from almost zero (no or very little meridional variations) for C₂H₂, C₂H₆, C₃H₈, C₂H₄ and CO₂ to a significant enhancement at high northern (early winter) latitudes for HCN, HC₃N, C₄H₂, C₃H₄ and C₆H₆. For the more important increases in the northern latitudes, the transition occurs roughly between 30 and 50 degrees north latitude, depending on the molecule. Note however that the very high-northern latitude results from tours TB-T10 bear large uncertainties due to few available data and problems with latitude smearing effects. The observed variations are consistent with some, but not all, of the predictions from dynamical-photochemical models. Constraints are set on the vertical distribution of C₂H₂, found to be compatible with 2-D equatorial predictions by global circulation models. The D/H ratio in the methane on Titan has been determined from the CH₃D band at 1156 cm⁻¹ and found to be . Implications of this deuterium enrichment, with respect to the protosolar abundance on the origin of Titan, are discussed. We compare our results with values retrieved by Voyager IRIS observations taken in 1980, as well as with more recent (1997) disk-averaged Infrared Space Observatory (ISO) results and with the latest Cassini-Huygens inferences from other instruments in an attempt to better comprehend the physical phenomena on Titan.     

Internal vascularity of the dermal plates of Stegosaurus (Ornithischia, Thyreophora)

X-ray computed tomography and petrographic thin sectioning were used to study internal features of the plates of the thyreophoran dinosaur Stegosaurus and the osteoderms of Alligator. Infrared thermographic imaging of basking caimans was used to examine possible differential blood flow to osteoderms and other parts of the skin. Multiple large openings in the Stegosaurus plate base lead to a linear, mesiodistally oriented vestibule, which in turn apically sends off multiply branching “pipes”. The pipes are best developed in the basal half of the plate, and communicate with cancellous regions (some of which presumably were vascular spaces) throughout the plate interior. Some internal vascular features also connect with vascular pits and grooves on the plate surface. Alligator osteoderms show a similar internal vascularity. In crocodylians, the osteoderms serve as armor and help to stiffen the back for terrestrial locomotion, but their vascularity enables them to be used as sources of calcium for egg shelling, as sites of lactate sequestration, and possibly for heat exchange with the external environment, as suggested by our infrared thermographic imaging of basking caimans. Thyreophoran osteoderms presumably had multiple functions as well. In Stegosaurus the potential thermoregulatory role of the plates may have been greater than in other thyreophorans, by virtue of their extensive external and internal vascularity, their large size, thin cross-sections above the plate base, dorsal position, and alternating arrangement.     

X-ray K-edge absorption spectra of Fe minerals and model compounds: II. EXAFS

K-edge extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) spectra of Fe in varying environments in a suite of well-characterized silicate and oxide minerals were collected using synchrotron radiation and analyzed using single scattering approximation theory to yield nearest neighbor Fe-O distances and coordination numbers. The partial inverse character of synthetic hercynite spinal was verified in this way. Comparison of the results from all samples with structural data from X-ray diffraction crystal structure refinements indicates that EXAFS-derived first neighbor distances are generally accurate to ±0.02 Å using only theoretically generated phase information, and may be improved over this if similar model compounds are used to determine EXAFS phase functions. Coordination numbers are accurate to ±20 percent and can be similarly improved using model compound EXAFS amplitude information. However, in particular cases the EXAFS-derived distances may be shortened, and the coordination number reduced, by the effects of static and thermal disorder or by partial overlap of the longer Fe-O first neighbor distances with second neighbor distances in the EXAFS structure function. In the former case the total information available in the EXAFS is limited by the disorder, while in the latter case more accurate results can in principle be obtained by multiple neighbor EXAFS analysis. The EXAFS and XANES spectra of Fe in Nain, Labrador osumulite and Lakeview, Oregon plagioclase are also analyzed as an example of the application of X-ray absorption spectroscopy to metal ion site occupation determination in minerals.     

The effects of soil moisture on synthetic aperture radar delineation of geomorphic surfaces in the Great Basin, Nevada, USA

RADARSAT-1 synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images from the western Great Basin, North America are used to map geomorphic features using environmental data (increased soil moisture), differences in incidence angles and ascending/descending satellite passes. These attributes are shown to increase the ability to delineate subtle geomorphic features along old shorelines. The change in moisture and the temporal resolution of the images provides a unique opportunity to use moisture as a geomorphic mapping tool in addition to traditional techniques such as image texture and the size and shape of the image features.