Quantitative taxonomy and biostratigraphy of Middle Cambrian trilobites from Montana and Wyoming

This study was made to revise the taxonomy and biostratigraphy of Middle Cambrian trilobites from Montana and Wyoming. Both numerical and conventional analyses were made of the taxonomic and biostratigraphic data. Numerical taxonomy was performed on a sample of 210 OTU's (Operational Taxonomic Units) using 66 characters which were determined on cranidia of Middle Cambrian ptychopariid trilobites. These characters consisted of linear measurements which were transformed to indices proportional to glabellar length, quantitative-qualitative shape or angle measurements, and multistate attributes. The similarity coefficients calculated were average taxonomic distances and Pearson's product-moment correlation coefficient. The matrices of similarity coefficients were clustered by single-linkage and unweighted pair-group algorithms. The coordinates of OTU's in a three-dimensional A-space defined by the first three principal axes also were calculated. A phenogram of the distance matrix clustered by UPGMA (which yielded the highest cophenetic correlation coefficient) and a three-dimensional pin-and-ball model were used to interpret the trilobite taxonomy. Insufficiently clear clustering in both representations of taxonomic structure necessitated also a conventional taxonomic study guided by the numerical phenetics. Numerical biostratigraphy was performed with 79 collections as OTU's and 43 trilobite genera as characters. Jaccard coefficients were used as similarity coefficients, and the results were clustered by UPGMA. The resultant phenogram was readily interpretable, and seven faunal assemblage zones (Albertella, Glossopleura, Ehmaniella, Bolaspis-Glyphaspis, Ehmania, Parehmania, and Bolaspidella)are defined for the Middle Cambrian in the study area. Two of the zones (Ehmaniellaand Parehmania)are new and replace part of the previously defined “Bathyuriscus-Elrathina”zone. Bolaspis-Glyphaspis, Ehmania,and Parehmaniazones may have only regional validity.     

A 50-year record of NO<Subscript>x</Subscript> and SO<Subscript>2</Subscript> sources in precipitation in the Northern Rocky Mountains,USA

Ice-core samples from Upper Fremont Glacier (UFG), Wyoming, were used as proxy records for the chemical composition of atmospheric deposition. Results of analysis of the ice-core samples for stable isotopes of nitrogen (δ¹⁵N, ) and sulfur (δ³⁴S, ), as well as and deposition rates from the late-1940s thru the early-1990s, were used to enhance and extend existing National Atmospheric Deposition Program/National Trends Network (NADP/NTN) data in western Wyoming. The most enriched δ³⁴S value in the UFG ice-core samples coincided with snow deposited during the 1980 eruption of Mt. St. Helens, Washington. The remaining δ³⁴S values were similar to the isotopic composition of coal from southern Wyoming. The δ¹⁵N values in ice-core samples representing a similar period of snow deposition were negative, ranging from -5.9 to -3.2 ‰ and all fall within the δ¹⁵N values expected from vehicle emissions. Ice-core nitrate and sulfate deposition data reflect the sharply increasing U.S. emissions data from 1950 to the mid-1970s.     

Isotopic variability in the aragonite shells of freshwater gastropods living in springs with nearly constant temperature and isotopic composition

We conducted a year-long, intensive monitoring program of live aquatic gastropods (Helisoma duryi, Melanoides tuberculata, Physa virgata, Pyrgulopsis sp., and Tyronia sp.) and their host springs in the Ash Meadows National Wildlife Refuge of southern Nevada. Our purpose was to constrain the degree of natural variation in the isotopic values of shell aragonite for gastropods living in near-constant conditions. Inter- and intraspecies variations, as well as within-shell variations, of δ¹⁸O and δ¹³C values for all taxa were larger than predicted based on variations in environmental conditions alone. This result suggests that different organisms growing in identical or nearly identical environmental conditions may not produce shells with equilibrium isotopic compositions and that these offsets from equilibrium may differ by small, but statistically significant amounts. For the gill-breathing, fully aquatic gastropods M. tuberculata, Pyrgulopsis sp., and Tyronia sp., the deviation of measured isotopic values compared to predicted values based on average environmental conditions were consistent with differences between taxa in the seasonal timing of shell growth. Measured values for the lung-breathing gastropods H. duryi and P. virgata were higher for δ¹⁸O and lower for δ¹³C than predicted at isotopic equilibrium, even when accounting for seasonality effects. We suggest that explaining the differences between the shell isotopic composition of lung- and gill-breathing snails requires a combination of both behavioral and physiologic factors. Our results illustrate the potential complexities of interpreting stable isotopic data from fossil gastropod shells even when environmental conditions are nearly constant, and place limitations on the paleoenvironmental deductions that can be made from the isotopic measurements on fossil gastropods.     

Site preservation along an active meandering and avulsing river: The Red River,Arkansas

The low-gradient Red River is a rapidly migrating, sinuous stream with easily erodible banks. Avulsion is common at many scales, from individual meander bends that are cut off to major sections of the river that form multiple, complex meander belts. The present meander belt can be subdivided into mappable landforms—termed phases—that are associated with river courses of different ages and thus associated with archeological sites of different ages. Within the study area two phases are present. The younger Modern meander belt phase has formed within the past 0.2–0.3 ky, precluding preservation of prehistoric archaeological sites. Any protohistoric artifacts that may have been preserved in this meander belt phase would be deeply buried because as much as 2 m of the vertical accretion sediment has accumulated between artificial levees in <0.1 ky and 1–2 m of sediment has accumulated beyond the artificial levees in <0.2 ky. Archeological site preservation in this highly mobile fluvial end member can be used as a predictor for other, similar streams. A large prehistoric site is preserved on an older (0.5–1 kya) Late Prehistoric meander belt phase associated with an abandoned river course. In the study area a Fourche Maline 7 period (A.D. 800–900) through Caddo IV period (ca. A.D. 1500–1700) archeological site (3MI3/30) is preserved on this slightly higher altitude portion of the flood plain. At locations proximal to the river, the site may be buried by overbank sediment 0.4 m thick, but at more distant locations the site is at the surface or only buried by thin overbank sediment because of low sedimentation rates (0.04 cm yr⁻¹) over the span of a millennium. Sites, such as 3MI3/30, that are occupied contemporaneous with overbank sedimentation may be stratified; however, localized erosion and removal of some archeological material may occur where channelized flow crosses the natural levee. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Greatlakean Substage: A replacement for Valderan Substage in the Lake Michigan basin

New evidence from recent field and seismic investigations in the Lake Michigan basin and in the type areas of the Valders, Two Creeks and Two Rivers deposits necessitates revision of late-glacial ice-front positions, rock- and time-stratigraphic nomenclature and climatic interpretations and deglaciation patterns for the period ca. 14,000–7,000 radiocarbon years B.P. The previously reported and long accepted pattern of deglaciation for the Lake Michigan basin started with a regular retreat from the Lake Border Morainic System, with a minor oscillation marked by the Port Huron moraine(s) and then an extensive Twocreekan deglaciation followed by a major (320 km) post-Twocreekan advance (Valders). However, we now record a major retreat between the times of the Lake Border and Port Huron moraines, followed by a gradual retreat from the Port Huron limit and interrupted by a minor standstill (deposition of Manitowoc Till), a retreat (Twocreekan) and a readvance (Two Rivers Till). No Woodfordian or younger readvance was as extensive as had been the preceding one. This sequence argues for a normal, climatically controlled, progressive deglaciation rather than one interrupted by a major post-Twocreekan (formerly Valderan) surge. This revision appears finally to harmonize the geologic evidence and the palynological record for the Great Lakes region. Our investigations show that Valders Till from which the Valderan Substage was named is late-Woodfordian in age. We propose the term “Greatlakean” as a replacement for the now misleading time-stratigraphic term “Valderan”. The type section and the definition of the upper and lower boundaries of the Greatlakean Substage remain the same as those originally proposed for the Valderan Substage but the name is changed.     

Geological, geochemical characteristics and isotope systematics of the Longqiao iron deposit in the Lu-Zong volcano-sedimentary basin, Middle-Lower Yangtze (Changjiang) River Valley, Eastern China

The Middle-Lower Yangtze (Changjiang) River Valley metallogenic belt is located on the northern margin of the Yangtze Craton of eastern China. Most polymetallic deposits in the Changjiang metallogenic belt are clustered in seven districts where magmatism of Mesozoic age (Yanshanian tectono-thermal event) is particularly extensive. From west to east these districts are: E-dong, Jiu-Rui, Anqing-Guichi, Lu-Zong, Tong-Ling, Ning-Wu and Ning-Zhen. World-class iron ore deposits occur in the Lu-Zong and Ning-Wu ore clusters, which are mainly located in continental fault-bound volcanic-sedimentary basins. One of these deposits is the Longqiao iron deposit, discovered in the northern part of the Lu-Zong Basin in 1985. This deposit consists of a single stratabound and stratiform orebody, hosted in sedimentary carbonate rocks of the Triassic Dongma'anshan Formation. A syenite pluton (Longqiao intrusion) is situated below the deposit. The iron ore is massive and disseminated and the ore minerals are mainly magnetite and minor pyrite. Wall rock alteration mostly consists of skarn minerals, such as diopside, garnet, potassic feldspar, quartz, chlorite, phlogopite and anhydrite. Thin sedimentary siderite beds of Triassic age occur as relict laminated ore at the top and the margin of the magnetite orebody. These sideritic laminae are part of Triassic evaporite-bearing carbonate deposits (Dongma'anshan Formation).Sulfur isotopic compositions show that the sulfur in the deposit was derived from a mixture of magmatic hydrothermal fluids and carbonate–evaporite host rocks. Similarly, the C and O isotopic compositions of limestones from the Dongma'anshan Formation indicate that these rocks interacted with magmatic hydrothermal fluids. The O isotopic compositions of the syenitic rocks and minerals from the deposit show that the hydrothermal magnetite and skarn minerals were formed from magmatic fluids. The Pb isotopic compositions of sulfides are similar to those of the Longqiao syenite. Phlogopite coexisting with magnetite in the magnetite ores yielded a plateau age of 130.5 ± 1.1 Ma (2σ), whereas the LA-ICP MS age of the syenite intrusion is 131.1 ± 1.5 Ma, which is slightly older than the age of phlogopite.The Longqiao syenite intrusion may have crystallized from a parental alkaline magma, generated by partial melting of lithospheric mantle, during extensional tectonics. The ore fluids were probably first derived from magma at depth, later emplaced in the sedimentary rocks of the Dongma'anshan Formation, where it interacted with siderite and evaporite-bearing carbonate strata, resulting in the formation of magnetite and skarn minerals. The Longqiao iron deposit is a skarn-type stratabound and stratiform mineral system, genetically and temporally related to the Longqiao syenite intrusion. The Longqiao syenite is part of the widespread Mesozoic intracontinental magmatism (Yanshanian event) in eastern China, which has been linked to lithospheric delamination and asthenospheric upwelling.     

Diel variation of selenium and arsenic in a wetland of the Great Salt Lake, Utah

Diel (24-h) changes in Se and As concentrations in a freshwater wetland pond bordering the Great Salt Lake (GSL) were examined. Selenium concentrations (filtered and unfiltered) changed on a diel basis, i.e., were depleted during early morning and enriched during daytime over August 17-18. During the May 24-25, 2006 and September 29-30 diel studies, no significant 24-h trends were observed in Se concentrations compared to August, which showed daily maximums up to 59% greater than the daily minimum. Both filtered and unfiltered As concentrations also varied on a diel cycle, with increased concentrations during early morning and decreased concentrations during daytime. Filtered As concentrations increased 110% during the May 24-25, 2006 diel study. Selenium varied in phase with pH, dissolved O₂ (DO), and water temperature (T_w) whereas As varied opposite to Se, pH, DO and T_w. Changes in pH, DO and T_w showed a direct linear correlation (r = 0.74, 0.75, and 0.55, respectively) to filtered Se. Also pH, DO and T_w were inversely correlated to filtered As concentration (r = −0.88, −0.87, and −0.84, respectively). Equilibrium geochemical speciation and sorption models were used to examine the potential oxidation state changes in Se and As, and sorption and desorption reactions corresponding to the observed 24-h variations in pe and pH. In this wetland it was postulated that diel Se variation was driven by sorption and desorption due to photosynthesis-induced changes in pH and redox conditions. Diel variations of As were hypothesized to be linked to pH-driven sorption and desorption as well as co-precipitation and co-dissolution with mineral phases of Mn.     

A comparative study of the modelling of cement hydration and cement-rock laboratory experiments

The use of cement and concrete as fracture grouting or as tunnel seals in a geological disposal facility for radioactive wastes creates potential issues concerning chemical reactivity. From a long-term safety perspective, it is desirable to be able model these interactions and changes quantitatively. The ‘Long-term Cement Studies’ (LCS) project was formulated with an emphasis on in situ field experiments with more realistic boundary conditions and longer time scales compared with former experiments. As part of the project programme, a modelling inter-comparison has been conducted, involving the modelling of two experiments describing cement hydration on one hand and cement-rock reaction on the other, with teams representing the NDA (UK), Posiva (Finland), and JAEA (Japan).This modelling exercise showed that the dominant reaction pathways in the two experiments are fairly well understood and are consistent between the different modelling teams, although significant differences existed amongst the precise parameterisation (e.g. reactive surface areas, dependences of rate upon pH, types of secondary minerals), and in some instances, processes (e.g. partition of alkali elements between solids and liquid during cement hydration; kinetic models of cement hydration). It was not conclusive if certain processes such as surface complexation (preferred by some modellers, but not by others) played a role in the cement-rock experiment or not. These processes appear to be more relevant at early times in the experiment and the evolution at longer timescales was not affected. The observed permeability profile with time could not be matched. The fact that no secondary minerals could be observed and that the precipitated mass calculated during the simulations is minor might suggest that the permeability reduction does not have a chemical origin, although a small amount of precipitates at pore throats could have a large impact on permeability.The modelling exercises showed that there is an interest in keeping the numerical models as simple as possible and trying to obtain a reasonable fit with a minimum of processes, minerals and parameters. However, up-scaling processes and model parameterisation to the timescales appropriate to repository safety assessment are of considerable concern. Future modelling exercises of this type should focus on a suitable natural or industrial analogue that might aid assessing mineral-fluid reactions at these longer timescales.     

Submarine hydrothermal activity and gold-rich mineralization at Brothers Volcano, Kermadec Arc, New Zealand

Brothers volcano, of the Kermadec intraoceanic arc, is host to a hydrothermal system unique among seafloor hydrothermal systems known anywhere in the world. It has two distinct vent fields, known as the NW Caldera and Cone sites, whose geology, permeability, vent fluid compositions, mineralogy, and ore-forming conditions are in stark contrast to each other. The NW Caldera site strikes for ??600?m in a SW?CNE direction with chimneys occurring over a ??145-m depth interval, between ??1,690 and 1,545?m. At least 100 dead and active sulfide chimney spires occur in this field and are typically 2?C3?m in height, with some reaching 6?C7?m. Their ages (at time of sampling) fall broadly into three groups: <4, 23, and 35?years old. The chimneys typically occur near the base of individual fault-controlled benches on the caldera wall, striking in lines orthogonal to the slopes. Rarer are massive sulfide crusts 2?C3?m thick. Two main types of chimney predominate: Cu-rich (up to 28.5?wt.% Cu) and, more commonly, Zn-rich (up to 43.8?wt.% Zn). Geochemical results show that Mo, Bi, Co, Se, Sn, and Au (up to 91?ppm) are correlated with the Cu mineralization, whereas Cd, Hg, Sb, Ag, and As are associated with the dominant Zn-rich mineralization. The Cone site comprises the Upper Cone site atop the summit of the recent (main) dacite cone and the Lower Cone site that straddles the summit of an older, smaller, more degraded dacite cone on the NE flank of the main cone. Huge volumes of diffuse venting are seen at the Lower Cone site, in contrast to venting at both the Upper Cone and NW Caldera sites. Individual vents are marked by low-relief (??0.5?m) mounds comprising predominately native sulfur with bacterial mats. Vent fluids of the NW Caldera field are focused, hot (??300°C), acidic (pH????2.8), metal-rich, and gas-poor. Calculated end-member fluids from NW Caldera vents indicate that phase separation has occurred, with Cl values ranging from 93% to 137% of seawater values. By contrast, vent fluids at the Cone site are diffuse, noticeably cooler (??122°C), more acidic (pH?1.9), metal-poor, and gas-rich. Higher-than-seawater values of SO₄ and Mg in the Cone vent fluids show that these ions are being added to the hydrothermal fluid and are not being depleted via normal water/rock interactions. Iron oxide crusts 3?years in age cover the main cone summit and appear to have formed from Fe-rich brines. Evidence for magmatic contributions to the hydrothermal system at Brothers includes: high concentrations of dissolved CO₂ (e.g., 206?mM/kg at the Cone site); high CO₂/³He; negative ??D and ??¹⁸O_H2O for vent fluids; negative ??³⁴S for sulfides (to ?4.6??), sulfur (to ?10.2??), and ??¹⁵N₂ (to ?3.5??); vent fluid pH values to 1.9; and mineral assemblages common to high-sulfidation systems. Changing physicochemical conditions at the Brothers hydrothermal system, and especially the Cone site, occur over periods of months to hundreds of years, as shown by interlayered Cu?+?Au- and Zn-rich zones in chimneys, variable fluid and isotopic compositions, similar shifts in ³He/⁴He values for both Cone and NW Caldera sites, and overprinting of ??magmatic?? mineral assemblages by water/rock-dominated assemblages. Metals, especially Cu and possibly Au, may be entering the hydrothermal system via the dissolution of metal-rich glasses. They are then transported rapidly up into the system via magmatic volatiles utilizing vertical (??2.5?km long), narrow (??300-m diameter) ??pipes,?? consistent with evidence of vent fluids forming at relatively shallow depths. The NW Caldera and Cone sites are considered to represent stages along a continuum between water/rock- and magmatic/hydrothermal-dominated end-members.