Orogeny, migmatites and leucogranites: A review

The type ofP-T-t path and availability of fluid (H₂O-rich metamorphic volatile phase or melt) are important variables in metamorphism. Collisional orogens are characterized by clockwiseP-T evolution, which means that in the core, where temperatures exceed the wet solidus for common crustal rocks, melt may be present throughout a significant portion of the evolution. Field observations of eroded orogens show that lower crust is migmatitic, and geophysical observations have been interpreted to suggest the presence of melt in active orogens. A consequence of these results is that orogenic collapse in mature orogens may be controlled by a partially-molten layer that decouples weak crust from subducting lithosphere, and such a weak layer may enable exhumation of deeply buried crust. Migmatites provide a record of melt segregation in partially molten crustal materials and syn-anatectic deformation under natural conditions. Grain boundary flow and intra-and inter-grain fracture flow are the principal grain scale melt flow mechanisms. Field observations of migmatites in ancient orogens show that leucosomes occur oriented in the metamorphic fabrics or are located in dilational sites. These observations are interpreted to suggest that melt segregation and extraction are syntectonic processes, and that melt migration pathways commonly relate to rock fabrics and structures. Thus, leucosomes in depleted migmatites record the remnant permeability network, but evolution of permeability networks and amplification of anomalies are poorly understood. Deformation of partially molten rocks is accommodated by melt-enhanced granular flow, and volumetric strain is accommodated by melt loss. Melt segregation and extraction may be cyclic or continuous, depending on the level of applied differential stress and rate of melt pressure buildup. During clockwiseP-T evolution, H₂O is transferred from protolith to melt as rocks cross dehydration melting reactions, and H₂O may be evolved above the solidus at lowP by crossing supra-solidus decompression-dehydration reactions if micas are still present in the depleted protolith. H₂O dissolved in melt is transported through the crust to be exsolved on crystallization. This recycled H₂O may promote wet melting at supra-solidus conditions and retrogression at subsolidus conditions. The common growth of ‘late’ muscovite over sillimanite in migmatite may be the result of this process, and influx of exogenous H₂O may not be necessary. However, in general, metasomatism in the evolution of the crust remains a contentious issue. Processes in the lower-most crust may be inferred from studies of xenolith suites brought to the surface in lavas. Based on geochemical data, we can use statistical methods and modeling to evaluate whether migmatites are sources or feeder zones for granites, or simply segregated melt that was stagnant in residue, and to compare xenoliths of inferred lower crust with exposed deep crust. Upper-crustal granites are a necessary complement to melt-depleted granulites common in the lower crust, but the role of mafic magma in crustal melting remains uncertain. Plutons occur at various depths above and below the brittle-to-viscous transition in the crust and have a variety of 3-D shapes that may vary systematically with depth. The switch from ascent to emplacement may be caused by amplification of instabilities within (permeability, magma flow rate) or surrounding (strength or state of stress) the ascent column, or by the ascending magma intersecting some discontinuity in the crust that enables horizontal magma emplacement followed by thickening during pluton inflation. Feedback relations between rates of pluton filling, magma ascent and melt extraction maintain compatibility among these processes.     

Roll vortices in the planetary boundary layer: A review

Roll vortices may be loosely defined as quasi two-dimensional organized large eddies with their horizontal axis extending through the whole planetary boundary layer (PBL). Their indirect manifestation is most obvious in so-called cloud streets as can be seen in numerous satellite pictures. Although this phenomenon has been known for more than twenty years and has been treated in a review by one of us (R.A.Brown) in 1980, there has been a recent resurgence in interest and information. The interest in ocena/land-atmosphere interactions in the context of climate modeling has led to detailed observational and modeling efforts on this problem. The presence of rolls can have a large impact on flux modelling in the PBL. Hence, we shall review recent advances in our understanding of organized large eddies in the PBL and on their role in vertical transport of momentum, heat, moisture and chemical trace substances within the lowest part of the atmosphere.initiated by IAMAP/ICDM Working Group on the Atmospheric Boundary Layer and Air-Sea Interaction.     

Climate change in Thailand and its potential impact on rice yield

In Thailand, the world's largest rice exporter, rice constitutes a major export on which the economy of the whole country depends. Climate change could affect rice growth and development and thus jeopardize Thailand's wealth. Current climatic conditions in Thailand are compared to predictions from four general circulation models (GCMs). Temperature predictions correlate well with the observed values. Predictions of monthly rainfall correlate poorly. Virtually all models agree that significant increases in temperature (from 1 to 7 °C) will occur in the region including Thailand following a doubling in atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂) concentration. The regional seasonality and extent of the rise in temperature varies with each model. Predictions of changes in rainfall vary widely between models. Global warming should in principle allow a northward expansion of rice-growing areas and a lengthening of the growing season now constrained by low temperatures. The expected increase in water-use efficiency due to enhanced CO₂ might decrease the water deficit vulnerability of dryland rice areas and could make it possible to slightly expand them.The research described in this article has been funded by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). This document has been prepared at the EPA Environmental Research Laboratory in Corvallis, Oregon, through contract # 68-C8-0006 to ManTech Environmental Technology, Inc. It has been subjected to the Agency's peer and administrative review and approved for publication. Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.     

Use of nuclear magnetic resonance microscopy for noninvasive observations of root-soil water relations

Summary As part of our strategy to study root-soil water relationships, it was necessary to develop a nondestructive technique to detect small changes in water distribution in and near the root. Nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), clinically used to nondestructively and noninvasively acquire anatomical information, can also be used to observe water distribution in roots, soils and other plant tissues. In MRI, a sample is placed in a strong magnetic field and a sequence of radio frequency (rf) pulses and magnetic field gradients is used to measure the concentration and relaxation properties of protons, chiefly those associated with water. This information is then reconstructed into a digital image representing the spatial distribution of water in plant tissues and soil. Today, intact roots less than 1 mm in diameter growing in soil or synthetic media can be clearly imaged in less than 4 minutes at resolutions typically less than 30µm. This permits rapid production of images that simultaneously distinguish temporal changes in water distribution in root tissue, the rhizosphere and the adjacent soil at microscopic levels. Applications of this technique for investigating plant-soil water relationships will be discussed.With 3 Figures     

A Model For the Effects Of Point-Source Emission Of Aerosols On Groundwater Systems

The effect of natural aerosols on groundwater chemistry is widely accepted, but the effects of anthropogenic aerosol emissions have received relatively little study. This sensitivity analysis examines the factors most significantly influencing the concentration of aerosols in groundwater. Processes include aerosol dispersion from a point source, deposition on the land surface , transport through the unsaturated zone, and mixing with underlying groundwater. The composite simulation model integrates well-documented models for the atmospheric, unsaturated-zone, and saturated-zone systems; models were chosen which could use the most readily obtainable or estimated input parameters. The analysis indicates that point-source aerosol contaminants possess a significant potential to affect aquifer water quality adversely. Furthermore, aerosols may have an impact on background concentrations on a regional scale. The key parameters are the source concentration, net infiltration, transport-velocity distributions in the unsaturated zone, and depth of the water table. We surmise that instances where groundwater contaminant dispersal greatly exceeds predicted travel times could be the result of aerosol contamination and not underestimations of seepage velocities or hydrodynamic dispersion. Aerosol contamination of groundwater should not be dismissed a priori. Résumé: L'impact des aérosols naturels sur la chimie des eaux souterraines est bien connu; mais celui provoqué par les émissions d'aérosols produits par l'homme a été bien peu étudié. Dans ce travail, les facteurs qui influencent de manière significative la concentration en aérosols des eaux souterraines ont été examinés en détail. Les processus en cause comprennent la dispersion de l'aérosol à partir d'une source ponctuelle, le dépôt à la surface du sol, le transport dans la zone non saturée et le mélange avec l'eau de la nappe. Le modèle composite de simulation intègre des modèles bien connu pour l'atmosphère, la zone non saturée et la zone saturée; les modèles choisis sont ceux qui utilisent les paramètres d'entrée les plus faciles à obtenir ou à estimer. L'analyse indique que les contaminants produits par une source ponctuelle peuvent affecter significativement de façon défavorable la qualité des eaux souterraines. En outre, les aérosols peuvent avoir un impact sur les concentrations originelles à l'échelle régionale. Les paramètres-clés sont la concentration à la source, l'infiltration nette et la profondeur de la surface piézométrique. Nous soupçonnons que dans les cas où la dispersion de polluants dans un aquifère dépasse largement les temps de transit prédits par les modèles, il se pourrait que cela soit dû à une contamination par des aérosols et non à une surestimation des vitesses d'infiltration ou de la dispersion hydrodynamique. La contamination des eaux souterraines par des aérosols ne doit pas être rejectée a priori.     

Holocene floodplain metamorphosis in the Midlands, United Kingdom

Many lowland rivers in the United Kingdom, including the Nene, Soar and Severn, have layered floodplains with a basal gravel of Pleistocene or Late glacial age and a structureless silty clay superficial unit burying the entire former floodplain. This burial is illustrated by the existence of variable, mixed and pedologically disturbed sediments and palaeo landsurfaces between the basal gravels and superficial silty clay. This paper presents a comparison of the pre- and post-late Holocene palaeo landsurfaces and palaeochannels using data from the Nene, Soar and Severn valleys. From this comparison it is argued that during the mid to late Holocene (ca 4500 yr BP to 2500 yr BP) floodplains and river channels underwent a metamorphosis. This is indicated by accelerated vertical accretion, a reduction in floodplain relative relief, changed floodplain soil conditions, a reduction in channel W/D ratios and a resultant increase in the silty clay proportion of channel perimeter sediments. There are indications that hydrological change preceded this metamorphosis but the primary cause was an increase in fine sediment supply during the later Holocene and a disequilibrium between channel bed and floodplain aggradation rates resulting in relative incision. This metamorphosis, which is explained in this paper by the proposed stable-bed aggrading-banks model (SBAB), is the key factor in the Holocene evolution of low-energy floodplain systems in the United Kingdom, upon which more subtle short-term fluctuations are superimposed.     

Gravity change in the Beijing-Tianjin-Tangshan area

A gravity network was established by a crew of gravity measurement in July, 1981, with three LCR gravimeters. The measurement errors are less than 100 nm/s². The detectable changes in gravity with time in the Beijing-Tianjin-Tangshan area are described. The results show that the gravity has increased 1000 nm/s² in Tianjin area where the ground has been subsiding at a rate of 7–8 cm/a and at the center of subsidence gravity has increased. At other stations, such as Baodi, Tangerli, etc., gravity has also increased gradually, but with an amplitude smaller than that of Tianjin. In the area surveyed gravity tendentiously decreases from south-east to north-east.     

A comparison of a Eulerian and a Lagrangian time scale for over-water atmospheric flows during stable conditions

Lagrangian integral time scales were calculated from crosswind concentration distributions of oil-fog smoke released from a continuous point source over the ocean during stable atmospheric conditions assuming an exponential correlation function. Variance of the lateral velocity fluctuations, _v ², and the energy dissipation rate, , were obtained from simultaneous Eulerian measurements at the beach. An Eulerian energy dissipation scale defined as _v ²/ was then computed. The ratio of the Lagrangian integral scale to the Eulerian energy dissipation scale was found to be close to 1. This ratio was also estimated to be 1 based on physical and dimensional considerations regarding the cascade of energy. Length scales for longitudinal, lateral and vertical directions were interpreted with a model based on similarity considerations applicable for over-water atmospheric flows.Authored under contract EY-76-C-02-0016 with the U.S. Department of Energy. Accordingly, the U.S. Government retains a nonexclusive, royalty-free license to publish or reproduce the published form of this contribution, or allow others to do so, for U.S. Government purposes.