Die zeitlichen Änderungen des atmosphärischen gefrierkerngehalts und ihre Beziehungen zu den Meteorströmen und zur atmosphärischen Zirkulation

Zusammenfassung Die Messungen des Gefrierkerngehalts der Luft in Weissenau in den Jahren 1953 bis 1957 werden auf kalendergebundene Maxima untersucht. Die vonBowen postulierten Januarmaxima können teilweise wiedergefunden werden; ihre jährliche Wiederkehr ist aber unbefriedigend und die Zuordnung der Gefrierkernmaxima zu den Meteorströmen während des ganzen Jahres nicht möglich. Dagegen ergibt sich eine gute Übereinstimmung der Gefrierkernmaxima im ganzen mittleren Jahresverlauf 1953/57 mit dem Jahresverlauf der Luftdruckdifferenz St. Mathieu-Lerwick während der Beobachtungsjahre und damit eine kollektive Bestätigung des erhöhten Gefrierkerngehalts der polaren Luftmassen, welche bei den durch diese Druckdifferenz beschriebenen Umstellungen der atmosphärischen Zirkulation nach Mitteleuropa geführt werden.

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Summary The measurements of the concentration of freezing nuclei in the atmosphere made at Weissenau during the years 1953 to 1957 are analysed in order to see, if there are peaks tending to occur on the same dates of calendar. In January the peaks postulated byBowen's hypothesis could be found again in part. But this pattern does not repeat year after year in a satisfying manner and the association of freezing nucleus peaks with meteor showers does not hold for all months. On the other hand it can be shown that a very good coincidence in time exists between the yearly mean freezing nucleus concentration figure, calculated from our values observed in 1953 to 1957 and the yearly mean figure of the daily difference of barometric pressure at St. Mathieu and at Lerwick during the same years. As this barometric pressure difference describes the fluctuations of the atmospheric circulation over. Central Europe, there results a collective confirmation of the fact, already known from the single measurements: that polar air masses coming to Weissenau in the course of these fluctuations have an increased freezing nucleus content.

     

Cape cormorants decrease,move east and adapt foraging strategies following eastward displacement of their main prey

Numbers of Cape cormorants Phalacrocorax capensis breeding in South Africa decreased by nearly 50% from approximately 107 000 pairs in 1977–1981 to 57 000 pairs in 2010–2014. Although four colonies had >10 000 pairs in 1977–1981, there was just one such colony in 2010–2014. Almost all the decrease occurred after the early 1990s off north-west South Africa, between the Orange River estuary and Dassen Island. South of this, the number breeding in the two periods was stable, with some colonies being formed or growing rapidly in the 2000s. The proportion of South Africa’s Cape cormorants that bred south of Dassen Island increased from 35% in 1977–1981 to 66% in 2010–2014, with the opposite situation observed in the north-west. This matched a shift to the south and east in the distributions of two of the Cape cormorant’s main prey species, anchovy Engraulis encrasicolus and sardine Sardinops sagax. In 2014, an apparent scarcity of prey in the north-west resulted in Cape cormorants attempting to take bait from hooks of fishing lines over an extended period, a behaviour not previously recorded. The number of Cape cormorants breeding in the south may be constrained by the absence of large islands between Dyer Island in the west and Algoa Bay in the east. If so, it may be possible to bolster the southern population through the provision of appropriate breeding habitat, such as platforms, or restricting human disturbance at suitable mainland cliff breeding sites.     

Low‐frequency modulation and trend of the relationship between ENSO and precipitation along the northern to centre Peruvian Pacific coast

The relationship between El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and precipitation along the Peruvian Pacific coast is investigated over 1964–2011 on the basis of a variety of indices accounting for the different types of El Niño events and atmospheric and oceanographic manifestations of the interannual variability in the tropical Pacific. We show the existence of fluctuations in the ENSO/precipitation relationship at decadal timescales that are associated with the ENSO property changes over the recent decades. Several indices are considered in order to discriminate the influence of the two types of El Niño, namely, the eastern Pacific El Niño and the central Pacific El Niño, as well as the influence of large‐scale atmospheric variability associated to the Madden and Julian Oscillation, and of regional oceanic conditions. Three main periods are identified that correspond to the interleave periods between the main climatic transitions over 1964–2011, i.e. the shifts of the 1970s and the 2000s, over which ENSO experiences significant changes in its characteristics. We show that the relationship between ENSO and precipitation along the western coast of Peru has experienced significant decadal change. Whereas El Niño events before 2000 lead to increased precipitation, in the 2000s, ENSO is associated to drier conditions. This is due to the change in the main ENSO pattern after 2000 that is associated to cooler oceanic conditions off Peru during warm events (i.e. central Pacific El Niño). Our analysis also indicates that the two extreme El Niño events of 1982/1983 and 1997/1998 have overshadowed actual trends in the relationship between interannual variability in the tropical Pacific and precipitation along the coast of Peru. Overall, our study stresses on the complexity of the hydrological cycle on the western side of the Andes with regard to its relationship with the interannual to decadal variability in the tropical Pacific. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Dynamic domain kinematic modelling for predicting interflow over leaky impeding layers

Traditional Boussinesq or kinematic simulations of interflow (i.e., lateral subsurface flow) assume no leakage through the impeding layer and require a no-flow boundary condition at the ridge top. However, recent analyses of many interflow-producing landscapes indicate that leaky impeding layers are common, that most interflow percolates well before reaching the toe slope, and therefore, the downslope contributing length is shorter than the hillslope length. In watersheds characterised by perched interflow over a low conductivity layer through permeable topsoil, interflow with percolation may be modelled with a kinematic wave model using a mobile upslope boundary condition defining the hillslope portion contributing interflow to valleys. Here, we developed and applied a dynamic interflow model to simulate interflow using a downslope travel distance concept such that only the active contributing length is modelled at any time. The model defines a variable active area based on the depth of the perched layer, the topographic slope and the ratio of the hydraulic conductivity of topsoil to that of the impeding layer. It incorporates a two-layer soil moisture accounting water balance analysis, a pedo-transfer function, and percolation and evaporation routines to predict interflow rates in continuous and event-based scenarios. We tested the modelling concept on two sets of data (2-year dataset of rainfall observations for the continuous simulation and a multi-day irrigation experiment for the event simulation) from a 121-m-long open interflow collection trench on an experimental hillslope at the Savannah River Site, South Carolina. The continuous model simulation partially represented the observed interflow hydrograph and perched water depth in the experimental hillslope with correlation coefficients of 0.85 and 0.35, respectively. Model performance improved significantly at event-scale analysis. The modelling approach realistically represents interflow dynamics in hillslopes with leaky impeding layers and can be integrated into catchment-scale hydrology models for more detailed hillslope process modelling.     

Long-term spatio-temporal precipitation variability in arid-zone Australia and implications for groundwater recharge

Quantifying dryland groundwater recharge as a function of climate variability is becoming increasingly important in the face of a globally depleted resource, yet this remains a major challenge due to lack of adequate monitoring and the complexity of processes involved. A previously unpublished and unique dataset of high density and frequency rainfall measurements is presented, from the Fowlers Gap Arid Zone Research Station in western New South Wales (Australia). The dataset confirms extreme spatial and temporal variability in rainfall distribution which has been observed in other dryland areas and is generally explained by the dominance of individual storm cells. Contrary to previous observations, however, this dataset contains only a few localised storm cells despite the variability. The implications of spatiotemporal rainfall variability on the estimation of groundwater recharge is assessed and show that the most likely recharge mechanism is through indirect and localised, rather than direct, recharge. Examples of rainfall and stream gauge height illustrate runoff generation when a spatially averaged threshold of 15–25 mm (depending on the antecedent moisture conditions) is exceeded. Preliminary assessment of groundwater levels illustrates that the regional water table is much deeper than anticipated, especially considering the expected magnitude of indirect and localised recharge. A possible explanation is that pathways for indirect and localised recharge are inhibited by the large quantities of Aeolian dust observed at the site. Runoff readily occurs with water collecting in surface lakes which slowly dry and disappear. Assuming direct groundwater recharge under these conditions will significantly overestimate actual recharge.     

Does sedimentary organic delta 13C record variations in quaternary ocean [CO2(aq)]?

Ocean surface water [CO2(aq)] variations based on glacial/interglacial changes in sediment delta 13Corg are shown to compare favorably with reconstructions based on ice core [CO2]. In particular, an approximate 80 microatmospheres increase in atmospheric pCO2 during the last glacial-interglacial transition is calculated to correspond to a 3-4 micromolar increase in ocean surface water [CO2(aq)] at atmospheric equilibrium. A widespread marine delta 13Corg decrease of 1-2% accompanied this event and was not preceded by an equivalent isotopic change in surface water total dissolved inorganic carbon. These observations support the hypothesis that [CO2(aq)] influences photosynthetic isotope fractionation between marine inorganic and organic carbon pools, and therefore that plankton/sediment delta 13Corg may serve as a proxy for surface water [CO2(aq)].     

Wirkungsbereiche und Häufigkeit der natürlichen Gefrierkerne

Zusammenfassung Die in den Wolken stark verbreitete Unterkühlbarkeit des Wassers sowie die Wirkungsweise der Gefrierkerne wurden im Laboratorium untersucht. Dabei wurden im Gefrierkernspektrum Maxima bei –4, –11 bis –12 und –19°C gefunden. Änderungen der Untersuchungsbedingungen beeinflussen nur die Höhe, nicht aber die Temperatur der Maxima. Auch eine künstliche Beeinflussung des Spektrums ist möglich und äußert sich in gleichem Sinne. Die Stärkere Unterkühlbarkeit kleiner Tropfen (im 3. Maximum) wird als rein statistischer Volumeneffekt erkannt. Wäßrige Lösungen zeigen das Gefrierkernspektrum um die Gefrierpunktserniedrigung verschoben. Diese Ergebnisse sowie die nachgewiesene allgemeine Gültigkeit des Gefrierkernspektrums führen zu dessen Deutung durch temperaturbedingte Strukturänderungen des Wassers; sie erklären die deutlich erkannte Bevorzugung derselben Temperaturbereiche bei der atmosphärischen Niederschlagsbildung, was keine der bisherigen Niederschlagstheorien vermag.Der Gefrierkerngehalt des Wassers wird bestimmt und es wird nachgewiesen, daß diese früh wirkenden Kerne auch im natürlichen Aerosol in genügender Anzahl vorhanden sind. In den verschiedenen Luftmassen werden sehr unterschiedliche Gefrierkerngehalte festgestellt: polare Luftmassen enthalten viele und sehr früh wirkende Gefrierkerne, in rein subtropischen Luftmassen fehlen diese nahezu vollständig. Daraus ist auf maritimen Ursprung dieser Gefrierkerne zu schließen.Zwischen –40° und –50°C, je nach erfaßter Luftmasse, vereist die Mischwolke ganz, nach einem schon früher einsetzenden Anstieg der Eisteilchenzahl. Dabei sind wieder Gefrierkerne beteiligt, und zwar etwa 200 per cm³. Der für die homogene Keimbildung charakteristische starke Anstieg der Eisteilchenzahl tritt erst bei Annäherung an –70°C auf. Die hier gebildete kubische Modifikation des Eises wird durch neue Beobachtungen belegt.Schließlich wird noch die kernfreie Eiskeimbildung durch dielektrische Polarisation erwähnt, welche bei geringer Unterkühlung ausgelöst werden kann, die mechanischen Gefrierauslösungen erklärt und auch in der Atmosphäre vorkommen muß.

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Summary The supercooling of water which is found most frequently in clouds, as well as the mechanism of action of freezing nuclei were investigated in the laboratory. The spectrum of freezing nuclei was found to have maxima at –4, –11 to –12 and –19°C. Alterations of the investigation conditions influence only the height but not the temperature of the maxima. Also an artificial influence on the spectrum is possible, and it has the same effect. The fact that small droplets can be supercooled to lower temperatures (in the 3rd maximum) is proved to be merely a statistical volume-effect. Aqueous solutions show the spectrum of freezing nuclei displaced by the lowering of the freezing point. These results and the ascertained general validity of the spectrum of freezing nuclei lead to its interpretation by changes of the structure of water itself, which are determined by temperature. They explain the fact that the formation of atmospheric precipitation prefers the same regions of temperature whereas none of the hitherto existing precipitation theories can do that.The content of freezing nuclei in water is determined, and it is shown that these early active nuclei are also present, in a sufficient number, in the natural aerosol. The contents of freezing nuclei found in various air masses show a great variation: polar air masses contain many and very early active freezing nuclei; these are nearly entirely absent in subtropical air masses. Thence it is concluded that these freezing nuclei are of maritime origin.Between –40° and –50°C, according to the investigated air mass, the mixed cloud, consisting of crystals and droplets, freezes entirely, following an increase of the number of ice particles which takes place somewhat earlier. Freezing nuclei participate in this process, again, their number being of the order of 200/cm³. The strong increase of the number of ice nuclei which is characteristic for the homogeneous formation of particles, takes place only if the temperature approaches –70°C. The cubic modification of ice formed at this temperature is proved by further observations.Finally, we mention the formation of ice particles bare of nuclei by dielectric polarisation which can be caused at slight supercooling. It explains the mechanical release of freezing, a process which should also occur in the atmosphere.

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Résumé L'eau surfondue, un état très fréquent dans les nuages, et la manière dont les noyeaux glaçogènes agissent pour former de la glace ont été l'objet de recherches au laboratoire. Au cours de ces expériences, le spectre des noyaux glaçogènes montrait des maxima aux températures de –4, –11 à –12 et –19°C. Des changements dans les conditions expérimentales n'influencent que la hauteur mais pas les températures des maxima. Une influence artificielle sur le spectre est possible et se mainifeste dans le même sens. Le fait que des gouttelettes plus petites peuvent être surfondues à des températures plus basses, fut décelé comme n'étant qu'un effet statistique causé par le volume.Les solutions aqueuses montrent aussi le spectre des noyeaux glaçogènes, mais le spectre y est déplacé par l'abaissement du point de cristallisation. Ces résultats et la validité commune du spectre des noyaux glaçogènes impliquent l'explication de ce spectre par les changements de la structure de l'eau elle-même par la température. Ils expliquent aussi la préférence des mêmes températures lors de la formation des précipitations atmosphériques, ce qu'aucune théorie à ce sujet n'a pu faire jusqu'ici.En mesurant le contenu de l'eau en noyaux glaçogènes on trouve que l'aérosol naturel contient aussi un nombre suffisant de ces noyaux à effet précoce. Dans les diverses masses d'air, le contenu en noyaux glaçogènes est très différent: les masses d'air polaires en contiennent un grand nombre à effect très précoce, dans les masses d'air subtropicales ces noyaux manquent presque complètement. Il s'en suit que ces noyaux glaçogènes sont très probablement d'origine maritime.Entre –40 et –50°C, suivant l'origine de la masse d'air en question, les nuages mixtes, composés de cristaux de glace et de gouttelettes d'eau, gèlent complètement après augmentation préalable du nombre des particules de glace, à laquelle participent de nouveau des noyaux glaçogènes à raison d'environ 200 par cm³. L'augmentation intensive du nombre des particules de glace, caractéristique pour la formation homogène, ne commence qu'en s'approchant de –70°C; de nouvelles observations confirment qu'à cette température se forme une modification cubique de la glace.L'auteur discute encore la formation de la glace par la polarisation diélectrique qui se fait sans noyaux. Elle produit des germes de glace à des températures peu inférieures à 0°C, explique les nucléations mécaniques et doit aussi exister dans l'atmosphère.

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Mit 14 Textabbildungen.     

Fault geometries illuminated from seismicity in central Taiwan: Implications for crustal scale structural boundaries in the northern Central Range

Data sets of collapsed earthquake locations, earthquake focal mechanisms, GPS velocities and geologic data are integrated to constrain the geometry and kinematics of a crustal block within the accreted continental margin rocks of Taiwan's northeastern Central Range. This block is laterally extruding and exhuming towards the north-northeast. The block is bound on the west-southwest by the previously recognized Sanyi–Puli seismic zone and on the east by a vertical seismic structure that projects to the eastern mountain front of the Central Range. Focal mechanisms from the Broadband Array of Taiwan Seismicity (BATS) catalog consistently show west-side-up reverse displacements for this fault zone. A second vertical structure is recognized beneath the Slate Belt–Metamorphic Belt boundary as a post-Chi-Chi relaxation oblique normal fault. BATS focal mechanisms show east-side-up, normal displacements with a minor left-lateral component. The vertical and lateral extrusion of this crustal block may be driven by the current collision between the Philippine Sea Plate and the Puli basement high indenter on the Eurasian Plate and/or trench rollback along the Ryukyu subduction zone. In addition, the vertical extent of the two shear zones suggests that a basal décollement below the eastern Central Range is deeper than previously proposed and may extend below the brittle–ductile transition.     

Testing for the occurrence of pilchard herpesvirus (PHV) in South African sardine Sardinops sagax

Catches of South African sardine Sardinops sagax have declined in recent years from about 200 000 t harvested annually during the period 2002–2006 to less than 100 000 t. Consequently, some companies are now importing sardine from sources elsewhere in the world to meet local demand for canned sardine and bait. This importation has the potential for the introduction of sardine pathogens, in particular the pilchard herpesvirus (PHV), which could have a negative impact on the currently small South African sardine population. The aims of the current study were to determine whether PHV is present in the local sardine population and to assess the extent to which sardine is being imported into the country and whether imported fish are from countries where the virus is known to be endemic. Fish sampled from South Africa’s western (n = 150), southern (n = 182) and eastern (n = 96) putative stocks of S. sagax were analysed for the presence of PHV using real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). The origin and amount of potentially infected material imported into South Africa during the period 2010–2014 was also assessed. None of the South African sardine collected during this study tested positive for PHV, suggesting that active PHV was not prevalent in the local population of S. sagax at the time of this study. Between 56 000 and 71 000 t of frozen sardine was imported annually into South Africa from countries where S. sagax occurs, including some from areas (Australia and New Zealand) where sardine infection by PHV is known to be endemic. Hence, it is plausible that the PHV pathogen, capable of perpetuating infections in local sardine populations, could be imported into South Africa along with the importation of frozen sardine. Should local sardine be naïve to the virus, as suggested by this study, then the population is at risk of infection and precautions against such must be taken.