L'organisation capitaliste du territoire et le problème du logement en Italie

The capitalistic organization of territory and the housing problem in Italy.This paper provides the first results of a research programme regarding the selective and spatially differentiated use of the Italian territory by private capital in the housing sector.According to the 1971 census, in Italy there were 63,8 million rooms for 53,2 million inhabitants. As regards the 1951 census the increase of rooms has been of 26,5 million, i.e. of 70.9%, as against an increase of 15,6% of the population. In this period the investment in dwelling-houses has represented about 30% of total fixed investments which is more than in the other E.E.C. countries.The Italian building stock (with a medium average of 1.2 rooms per inhabitant), is theoretically sufficient to satisfy the population needs. This ratio, however, drops to 1.06 if we exclude the 7.6 million rooms in non-inhabited houses (“holiday houses”, new unsold houses, abandoned homes because of emigration or because of their poor conditions).Moreover, more than one third of the Italian population lives in overcrowded conditions (less than one room per person) and poor standard houses are 40% of the total.This is not only due to the fact that public investments in the housing sector have been insignificant (6% in the last ten years), or to the unequal social distribution of revenue, but also, moreover, to the speculative character of the building activity.The economic analysis shows that between 1951 and 1971, in the expansive stages of housing production, net incomes of the building and land sector have increased more rapidly than the total earned incomes and that they have been higher than the amount of investments in the sector. So, building and land estate rent have been among the main components of the Italian capitalistic accumulation through the exporpriation of a prominent share of wages. At the same time, the ever increasing growth in housing prices both for sale and for rent has forbidden the fulfilment of the needs of the lower classes, extending in an abnormal way the production of luxury and “holiday houses” to satisfy the requirements of the higher classes. This is the cause of the above mentioned contradiction between the amount of the unused or subused building stock and the existence of a large number of sub-standard and/or overcrowded houses.This mechanism of accumulation-expropriation worked because of a specific spatial structure. Its main character consists in a strong geographical concentration of the basic activities and of the population. 53.3% of 1960–1971 housing production has concentrated in 4.7% of the Italian communes with more than 20,000 inhabitants.The analysis carried out on a stratified sample including 1,524 communes allowed us to reach the following results: 1. We find situations of greater unsatisfaction of the needs in the largest industrial metropolitan north-western areas and in the underdeveloped southern communes with strong emigrations. 2. We have had the highest offer for houses, as regards the needs, in the communes with less than 5,000 inhabitants, in the communes with less than 250,000 inhabitants, with prevalently tertiary functions, and in the districts where development is more equilibrated, from a territorial point of view (i.e.: north-eastern Italy). 3. The mechanism of accumulation-expropriation worked mainly in the industrial areas and it grows at the ever increasing growth of agglomerations and urban overcrowding, determined by strong migratory flows. 4. Building activity of tertiary communes has been led, mainly, by the higher-class expansion of consumptions. 5. The same kind of demand has given rise to the strong increase of “holiday houses” which interests large periurban, coastal and Alpine areas. 6. The housing sector becomes in this way a component of territorial disequilibriums, caused by the industrial and tertiary polarization and it is inclined to enlarge them by the artful increase of urban rent. 7. This use of territory has the aim to encourage incomes removal among different social classes and to contribute in this way, to the process of capitalistic accumulation. But, by doing this, it causes a kind of growth, in the housing sector, which is unable to satisfy lower-class needs for houses. 8. The attainment of this last purpose would, therefore, mean an efficient regional planning and the elimination of urban rent, conditions which are in opposition to the maintenance of the present economic and social structure of the Italian economy, of which speculative building and rent sectors are, nowadays, essential components.     

Albedo investigations in Labrador-Ungava

Summary The author has prepared a map of the summer albedo of Labrador-Ungava by combiningHare's published map of vegetation covertypes and the results of estimates of albedo obtained from airborne measurements of incoming and reflected solar radiation. Attention is called to: (1) the problem of measuring surface reflectivity with an instrument of almost full hemispherical vision; (2) the poor relationship between visual impressions of albedo and determinations in forest areas; (3) the relation between albedo value and solar altitude in the case of water surfaces also considering the effect of surface disturbance; (4) the markedly higher albedo values for all surfaces under diffuse radiation than under direct sunlight due mainly to the effect of shadowing by surface irregularities; and (5) the need for albedo data for winter months together with maps for the effective outgoing longwave radiation for summer and winter.

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Zusammenfassung Auf Grund einer Kombination der Ergebnisse von Flugzeugbestimmungen der Albedo mitHares Karte der Vegetationstypen wird eine Karte der sommerlichen Albedo für das Gebiet von Labrador-Ungava aufgestellt. Dabei wird speziell auf folgende Punkte hingewiesen: 1. auf die Notwendigkeit, für Messungen des Oberflächenreflexionsvermögens ein Instrument mit angenähert hemisphärisch freier Empfangsfläche zu verwenden; 2. auf die geringe Übereinstimmung zwischen visuellem Eindruck und Meßergebnis bei Albedobestimmungen in Waldgebieten; 3. auf die Beziehung zwischen Albedowert und Sonnenhöhe über Wasserflächen unter der Oberflächenrauheit; 4. auf die merklich höheren Albedowerte bei diffuser Strahlung gegenüber gerichteter Strahlung für alle Oberflächen, was vorwiegend auf Beschattung durch Flächenunregelmäßigkeiten zurückzuführen sein dürfte; 5. auf die Notwendigkeit, diese Untersuchung durch Albedowerte für die Wintermonate und durch Karten der effektiven langwelligen Ausstrahlung für Sommer und Winter zu ergänzen.

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Résumé L'auteur a établi une carte de l'albedo d'été du Labrador-Ungava. Pour ce faire, il combine la carte des types de végétation publiée parHare aux résultats d'estimations de l'albedo. Ces estimations proviennent de mesures de la radiation solaire reçue et réfléchie effectuées à bord d'un avion. L'auteur attire l'attention du lecteur: 1) sur la nécessité d'utiliser un instrument ayant une surface libre de réception approximativement hémisphérique pour la mesure des propriétés de réflexion d'une surface, 2) sur la faible relation existant, en terrain boisé, entre les impressions visuelles et la mesure de l'albedo, 3) sur la relation entre la hauteur du soleil sur l'horizon et l'albedo d'une surface d'eau à condition de tenir compte des effets résultant des troubles subis par la dite surface, 4) sur les valeurs beaucoup plus élevées de l'albedo obtenues par lumière diffuse que sous le rayonnement direct du soleil et cela quelle que soit la nature de la surface considérée — ceci est sans doutes dû aux ombres portées par des irrégularités de la dite surface — et, enfin, 5) sur la nécessité de compléter ces données par des valeurs de l'albedo en hiver d'une part et, d'autre part, par des cartes de l'émission effective sous forme de longues ondes tant en été qu'en hiver.

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With 5 Figures     

The spatial formation of the South African City

The south African social formation is characterised by a distinctively large social distance. This paper traces the evolution of the social formation, identifies some of its parameter and demonstrates its on the urbanisation process and the urban structure. Within this framework, a Segregation City and an Apartheid City are recognised, representing two sequential but interrelated phases of urban development separated by the acceptance of a formal Apartheid ideology and development strategy from 1948 onwards.     

Cross-Correlation of Tenerife Data with Galactic Templates-Evidence for Spinning Dust?

The recent discovery of dust-correlated diffuse microwave emission has prompted two rival explanations: free-free emission and spinning dust grains. We present new detections of this component at 10 and 15 GHz by the switched-beam Tenerife experiment. The data show a turnover in the spectrum and thereby support the spinning dust hypothesis. We also present a significant detection of synchrotron radiation at 10 GHz, which is useful for normalizing foreground contamination of cosmic microwave background experiments at high galactic latitudes.     

Elasticity,crystal structure and phase transitions

It is demonstrated that in many cases the ratio of elastic velocities of polymorphs of a material depends primarily on the crystal structures involved, and only secondarily on the composition. Crucial to this demonstration is the use of estimates, from the Hashin-Shtrikman bounds, of the elastic properties of mixtures of simple oxides isochemical to particular compounds. Normalization to the oxide mixture properties displays the interrelationships between the densities and velocities of different crystal structures. A wide range of velocity-density trends through possible phase transitions is found. Transitions involving increases of Si coordination from 4 to 6 tend to have lower slopes. Velocity-density correlations are reasonably consistent with the average trends through phase transitions.Comparison of models of the transition zone with the characteristics of the olivine-spinel-oxides transitions indicates that in some studies the lower mantle density may have been underestimated or the mean atomic weight of the lower mantle overestimated. The transition zone of Model B1 of Jordan and Anderson, which was derived entirely from seismic data, is consistent, overall, with the olivine-oxides transition and uniform composition, but the individual discontinuities are not consistent with the olivine-spinel and spinel-oxides transitions.     

Coexisting cummingtonite and aluminous hornblende from garnet amphibolite,Boehls Butte area,Idaho, USA

Electron microprobe analyses of green hornblende and coexisting cummingtonite from garnet amphibolite show identical Fe/Mg ratios ( = 0.9). Cummingtonite is iron-magnesium silicate with very little calcium and aluminum and practically no alkalies. In contrast, the hornblende has 1.5 tetrahedral Al, 0.9 octahedral Al and a considerable amount of Ca and alkalies. Comparison with the hornblendes from the Sierra Nevada shows a higher relative amount of tschemakite molecule in the hornblendes from Idaho where pressures during the recrystallization were higher.     

Electrical conductivity and potential gradient measurements in the free atmosphere over India

Summary Results of measurements of atmospheric electrical potential gradient and conductivity in the free atmosphere using balloon borne radiosondes made at a few stations in India are presented. The potential gradient generally decreases exponentially with height above the exchange layer and the electrical conductivity profiles show corresponding mirror image symmetry. Large variations of electrical potential gradient and conductivity are, however, observed in the troposphere closely associated with clouds, dust and haze and other local meteorological phenomena and space charge effects. Significant though small variations are also observed in the stratosphere, which appear to be associated with the existence of aerosol layers.From an analysis of integrated potential profiles the total atmospheric potential has been calculated and found to have a mean value of 300 kV; the ionospheric potential varies diurnally and seasonally about the mean.

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Zusammenfassung Messungen der luftlelektrischen Leitfähigkeit und des atmosphärischen Potentialgradienten werden berichtet, welche mit ballongetragenen Radiosonden in der freien Atmosphäre über Indien ausgeführt worden sind. Oberhalb der Austauschschicht vermindert sich das Potentialgefälle exponentiell mit der Höhe, während die Leitfähigkeitsprofile das dazu spiegelbildliche Bild zeigen. In der Troposphäre werden jedoch grosse Änderungen des Potentialgefälles und der Leitfähigkeit im Zusammenhang mit Wolken, Dunst, Staub und mit anderen meteorologischen Erscheinungen und mit Raumladungseffekten beobachtet. Auch in der Stratosphäre werden signifikante, wenn auch kleine Änderungen beobachtet, welche mit der Existenz von Aerosolschichten zusammen zu hängen scheinen.Das gesamte atmosphärische Potential wurde aus den integrierten Potential-gefällekurven berechnet zu 300 kV als Mittel gefunden; dieses Ionosphärenpotential zeigt Veränderungen um diesen Mittel in Form von Tagesgängen und Jahresgängen.