On the formation of massive galaxies: a simultaneous study of number density, size and intrinsic colour evolution in GOODS

The evolution of number density, size and intrinsic colour is determined for a volume-limited sample of visually classified early-type galaxies selected from the Hubble Space Telescope /Advanced Camera for Surveys images of the Great Observatories Origins Deep Survey (GOODS) North and South fields (version 2). The sample comprises 457 galaxies over 320 arcmin² with stellar masses above  3 × 10¹⁰ M_⊙  in the redshift range  0.4 < z < 1.2  . Our data allow a simultaneous study of number density, intrinsic colour distribution and size. We find that the most massive systems  (≳3 × 10¹¹ M_⊙)  do not show any appreciable change in comoving number density or size in our data. Furthermore, when including the results from 2dF galaxy redshift survey, we find that the number density of massive early-type galaxies is consistent with no evolution between   z = 1.2  and 0, i.e. over an epoch spanning more than half of the current age of the Universe. We find large discrepancies between the predictions of semi-analytic models. Massive galaxies show very homogeneous intrinsic colour distributions, with nearly flat radial colour gradients, but with a significant negative correlation between stellar mass and colour gradient, such that red cores appear predominantly in massive galaxies. The distribution of half-light radii – when compared to   z ∼ 0  and   z > 1  samples – is compatible with the predictions of semi-analytic models relating size evolution to the amount of dissipation during major mergers.     

Assessing uncertainties in climate change impact analyses on the river flow regimes in the UK. Part 1: baseline climate

Assessing future climate and its potential implications on river flows is a key challenge facing water resource planners. Sound, scientifically-based advice to decision makers also needs to incorporate information on the uncertainty in the results. Moreover, existing bias in the reproduction of the ‘current’ (or baseline) river flow regime is likely to transfer to the simulations of flow in future time horizons, and it is thus critical to undertake baseline flow assessment while undertaking future impacts studies. This paper investigates the three main sources of uncertainty surrounding climate change impact studies on river flows: uncertainty in GCMs, in downscaling techniques and in hydrological modelling. The study looked at four British catchments’ flow series simulated by a lumped conceptual rainfall–runoff model with observed and GCM-derived rainfall series representative of the baseline time horizon (1961–1990). A block-resample technique was used to assess climate variability, either from observed records (natural variability) or reproduced by GCMs. Variations in mean monthly flows due to hydrological model uncertainty from different model structures or model parameters were also evaluated. Three GCMs (HadCM3, CCGCM2, and CSIRO-mk2) and two downscaling techniques (SDSM and HadRM3) were considered. Results showed that for all four catchments, GCM uncertainty is generally larger than downscaling uncertainty, and both are consistently greater than uncertainty from hydrological modelling or natural variability. No GCM or downscaling technique was found to be significantly better or to have a systematic bias smaller than the others. This highlights the need to consider more than one GCM and downscaling technique in impact studies, and to assess the bias they introduce when modelling river flows.     

Spectra of CO<Subscript>2</Subscript> and Water Vapour in the Marine Atmospheric Surface Layer

Spectra of CO₂ and water vapour fluctuations from measurements made in the marine atmospheric surface layer have been analyzed. A normalization of spectra based on Monin–Obukhov similarity theory, originally developed for wind speed and temperature, has been successfully extended also to CO₂ and humidity spectra. The normalized CO₂ spectra were observed to have somewhat larger contributions from low frequencies compared to humidity spectra during unstable stratification. However, overall, the CO₂ and humidity spectra showed good agreement as did the cospectra of vertical velocity with water vapour and CO₂ respectively. During stable stratification the spectra and cospectra displayed a well-defined spectral gap separating the mesoscale and small-scale turbulent fluctuations. Two-dimensional turbulence was suggested as a possible source for the mesoscale fluctuations, which in combination with wave activity in the vertical wind is likely to explain the increase in the cospectral energy for the corresponding frequency range. Prior to the analysis the turbulence time series of the density measurements were converted to time series of mixing ratios relative to dry air. Some differences were observed when the spectra based on the original density measurements were compared to the spectra based on the mixing ratio time series. It is thus recommended to always convert the density time series to mixing ratio before performing spectral analysis.     

A multi-perspective examination of heat waves affecting Metro Vancouver: now into the future

Using studies of places where heat waves are common, projected changes in heat waves in Metro Vancouver are assessed from a multi-disciplinary perspective with respect to the potential impacts of the physical change on the people and infrastructure with the intention of being better prepared for future events. Trends in maximum temperature parameters for Metro Vancouver for the past 75 years are generally not statistically significant; however, projections for 2041–2060 and 2081–2100 suggest that the region will experience such events more frequently in the future due to climate change. While Metro Vancouver, British Columbia (BC) generally does not typically experience heat waves it was strongly affected by a major heat event in July 2009, with temperature records being broken at Vancouver (≥31 °C) on the coast and at Abbotsford (≥36 °C) 65-km inland. A lack of sea breeze during this event meant that there was no cooling effect, and land surface temperatures over the downtown area approached 40 °C and excess deaths occurred. Many victims were either in the 65–74 age category, the vulnerable poor, or people with mental health issues. Because these events are rare, many buildings lack air-conditioning, and residents of Metro Vancouver under-anticipate their vulnerability. The costs of health-related impacts outweighed those related to higher electricity usage.     

Diatoms as a source for 4-desmethyl-23,24-dimethyl steroids in sediments and petroleum

Analysis of the sterol composition of more than 100 diatom cultures, representing all major marine diatom orders, indicates that this group of algae may be an important source for 4-desmethyl-23,24-dimethyl steroids in sediments and petroleum, as their precursors, i.e. 4-desmethyl-23,24-dimethyl sterols, were present in 22 of the cultures. The phylogenetic positions of diatom species that produce 4-desmethyl-23,24-dimethyl sterols show that, within the centric diatoms, only a specific group of diatoms is able to produce these sterols, while within the pennate diatoms, a phylogenetic relationship between 4-desmethyl-23,24-dimethyl sterol-producing diatoms is less apparent. Based on the phylogenetic relationship, it is suggested that diatoms inherited the ability of producing these sterols from a single common ancestor, which originated between 150 and 100 Ma ago. Co-injection of an authentic 23R,24R-dimethyl-5α-cholestane standard with extracts confirmed its presence in sediments. We also tentatively identified three other 4-desmethyl-23,24-dimethyl sterane isomers having different side-chain stereo-configurations and observed that some of the isomers co-elute with other steranes including 24-ethyl-5α-cholestane.     

Sulfur isotope signatures in gypsiferous sediments of the Estancia and Tularosa Basins as indicators of sulfate sources, hydrological processes, and microbial activity

In order to reconstruct paleo-environmental conditions for the saline playa lakes of the Rio Grande Rift, we investigated sediment sulfate sources using sulfur isotope compositions of dissolved ions in modern surface water, groundwater, and precipitated in the form of gypsum sediments deposited during the Pleistocene and Holocene in the Tularosa and Estancia Basins. The major sulfate sources are Lower and Middle Permian marine evaporites (δ³⁴S of 10.9-14.4‰), but the diverse physiography of the Tularosa Basin led to a complex drainage system which contributed sulfates from various sources depending on the climate at the time of sedimentation. As inferred from sulfur isotope mass balance constraints, weathering of sulfides of magmatic/hydrothermal and sedimentary origin associated with climate oscillations during Last Glacial Maximum contributed about 35-50% of the sulfates and led to deposition of gypsum with δ³⁴S values of −1.2‰ to 2.2‰ which are substantially lower than Permian evaporates. In the Estancia Basin, microbial sulfate reduction appears to overprint sulfur isotopic signatures that might elucidate past groundwater flows. A Rayleigh distillation model indicates that about 3-18% of sulfates from an inorganic groundwater pool (δ³⁴S of 12.6-13.8‰) have been metabolized by bacteria and preserved as partially to fully reduced sulfur-bearing minerals species (elemental sulfur, monosulfides, disulfides) with distinctly negative δ³⁴S values (−42.3‰ to −20.3‰) compared to co-existing gypsum (−3.8‰ to 22.4‰). For the Tularosa Basin microbial sulfate reduction had negligible effect on δ³⁴S value of the gypsiferous sediments most likely because of higher annual temperatures (15-33 °C) and lower organic carbon content (median 0.09%) in those sediments leading to more efficient oxidation of H₂S and/or smaller rates of sulfate reduction compared to the saline playas of the Estancia Basin (5-28 °C; median 0.46% of organic carbon).The White Sands region of the Tularosa Basin is frequently posited as a hydrothermal analogue for Mars. High temperatures of groundwater (33.3 °C) and high δ¹⁸O(H₂O) values (1.1‰) in White Sands, however, are controlled predominantly by seasonal evaporation rather than the modern influx of hydrothermal fluids. Nevertheless, it is possible that some of the geochemical processes in White Sands, such as sulfide weathering during climate oscillations and upwelling of highly mineralized waters, might be considered as valid terrestrial analogues for the sulfate cycle in places such as Meridiani Planum on Mars.     

An alternative model for silica enrichment in the Kaapvaal subcontinental lithospheric mantle

The Mg- and Si-rich nature of the sub-cratonic lithospheric mantle (SCLM) beneath the Kaapvaal Craton indicates extensive melt depletion, followed by a Si-enrichment process. Six highly silica enriched peridotites from Kimberley containing high amounts of orthopyroxene (Opx) or garnet (Grt) that are locally concentrated in clots, were investigated to constrain the timing and nature of the Si-enrichment process. A clinopyroxene-bearing lherzolite containing an Opx-clot was studied to quantify the effects of recent metasomatism on the Si-enriched samples. Minerals from the lherzolite, together with Opx from harzburgites and Opx- and Grt-clots have Hf-Nd isotope ratios at the time of kimberlite eruption, 90 Ma, comparable to group I kimberlites and are close to trace element equilibrium with kimberlitic melts. This implies the xenoliths underwent major interaction with kimberlitic melts close to the time of kimberlite eruption.Harzburgites and mineral clots record equilibration pressures and temperatures of, respectively, between 3.5-4.3 GPa and 930-1060 °C. The garnets in Opx-clots have low Lu/Hf and ε_Hf(t) −15, whereas garnets from Grt-clots have high Lu/Hf and ε_Hf(t) +10. In contrast, Grt from both Grt- and Opx-clots have low Sm/Nd and ε_Nd −10. The whole rock platinum group element (PGE) concentrations are an order of magnitude higher in the Grt-clot than the Opx-clot. Measured ¹⁸⁷Os/¹⁸⁸Os range from 0.1085 to 0.1222. The Grt-clot bearing sample yields Nd-Hf-Os isotope model ages that suggest formation in the Neoproterozoic (∼650 Ma). In contrast, an Opx-clot yields T_RD ages of 2.8 Ga, which is interpreted as the time of formation of the host harzburgite. The Opx-clots and host harzburgites have comparable Lu-Hf isotope systematics that imply Opx growth at ∼1.3 Ga and hence their formation is not related to the Grt-clots.Garnets from Opx- and Grt-clots have elevated high-field strength element (HFSE) concentrations, and lack HFSE depletion relative to other trace elements with comparable degrees of incompatibility in the mantle (La/Nb < 0.5). In addition, calculated melts in equilibrium with Grt have strongly fractionated REE (Nd/Yb > 300) and HREE depletion (Yb_N < 0.1) suggesting equilibration with a hydrous melt that is more HREE depleted than a kimberlitic melt. Previous models that related Si-enrichment to subduction are inconsistent with the lack of HFSE depletion (La/Nb < 0.5). Therefore the favoured model for Opx- and Grt-clot formation is infiltration of a hydrous melt in a within plate geodynamical environment associated with volcanism in the Mid-proterozoic and Neoproterozoic, respectively. This implies that Si-enrichment of the Kaapvaal SCLM may be a consequence of numerous localised magmatic events rather than a single craton-wide process.