Reservoir Quality Assessment of the Upper Permian Chhidru Formation,Salt and Surghar Ranges,Pakistan

The Late Permian succession of the Upper Indus Basin in northeastern Pakistan is represented by the carbonate-dominated Zaluch Group, which consists of the Amb, Wargal and Chhidru formations, which accumulated on the southwestern shelf of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean, north of the hydrocarbon-producing Permian strata of the Arabian Peninsula. The reservoir properties of the mixed clastic-carbonate Chhidru Formation (CFm) are evaluated based on petrography, using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDX) and x-ray diffraction (XRD) techniques. The diagenetic features are recognized, ranging from marine (isopachous fibrous calcite, micrite), through meteoric (blocky calcite-I, neomorphism and dissolution) to burial (poikilotopic cement, blocky calcite-II-III, fractures, fracture-filling, and stylolites). Major porosity types include fracture and moldic, while inter- and intra-particle porosities also exist. Observed visual porosity ranges from 1.5%–7.14% with an average of 5.15%. The sandstone facies (CMF-4) has the highest average porosity of 10.7%, whereas the siliciclastic grainstone microfacies (CMF-3) shows an average porosity of 5.3%. The siliciclastic mudstone microfacies (CMF-1) and siliciclastic wacke-packestone microfacies (CMF-2) show the lowest porosities of 4.8% and 5.0%, respectively. Diagenetic processes like cementation, neomorphism, stylolitization and compaction have reduced the primary porosities; however, processes of dissolution and fracturing have produced secondary porosity. On average, the CFm in the Nammal Gorge, Salt Range shows promise and at Gula Khel Gorge, Trans-Indus, the lowest porosity.     

Deciphering heavy metal contamination zones in soils of a granitic terrain of southern India using factor analysis and GIS

Soil contamination by heavy metals has been a major concern for last few decades due to increase in urbanization and industrialization. The main objective of this research was to identify the heavy metal contaminated zones in the study area. Twenty five soil samples collected throughout the agriculture, residential and industrial areas were analysed by X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometer (XRF) for trace metals and major oxides. These metals can affect the quality of soil and infiltrate through the soil, thereby causing groundwater pollution. Based on the chemical analysis of major oxides (SiO_2, Al₂O_3, ?Fe₂O_3, MnO, MgO, CaO, Na₂O, K₂O, TiO₂, and P₂O₅) and their distribution; it is observed that these soils are predominantly siliceous type with slight enrichment of alumina component in the study area. Correlation matrix (CM) and factor analysis (FA) is employed to the heavy metal variables, viz., Ba, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, Rb, Sr, V, Y, Zn and Zr of the soil to determine the dominant factors contributing to the soil contamination in the area. In the analysis, five factors emerged as significant contributors to the soil quality. The total contribution of these five factors is about 90%. The contribution of the first factor is about 45% and has significant positive loadings of Co, Cr, Cu, Ni and Zn. The contribution of second factor is 22% and has significant positive loadings of Rb, Sr and Y. The contribution of third, fourth and fifth factors is 10, 8 and 5% and show positive loadings for lead, molybdenum and barium respectively to the soil contamination. The spatial variation maps deciphering different zones of heavy metal concentration in the soil were generated in a GIS (geographic information system) based environment using ArcGIS 9.3.1. The results reveal that heavy metal contamination in the area is mainly due to anthropogenic activities.     

A Periglacial Palaeoenvionment in the Upper Carboniferous–Lower Permian Tobra Formation of the Salt Range, Pakistan

The Upper Carboniferous—Lower Permian(Upper Pennsylvanian-Asselian) Tobra Formation is exposed in the Salt and Trans Indus ranges of Pakistan.The formation exhibits an alluvial plain(alluvial fan-piedmont alluvial plain) facies association in the Salt Range and Khisor Range.In addition,a stream flow facies association is restricted to the eastern Salt Range.The alluvial plain facies association is comprised of clast-supported massive conglomerate(Gmc),diamictite(Dm)facies,and massive sandstone(Sm) Hthofacies whereas the stream flow-dominated alluvial plain facies association includes fine-grained sandstone and siltstone(Fss),fining upwards pebbly sandstone(Sf),and massive mudstone(Fm) Hthofacies.The lack of glacial signatures(particularly glacial grooves and striatums) in the deposits in the Tobra Formation,which are,in contrast,present in their timeequivalent and palaeogeographically nearby strata of the Arabian peninsula,e.g.the AI Khlata Formation of Oman and Unayzah B member of the Saudi Arabia,suggests a pro-to periglacial,i.e.glaciofluvial depositional setting for the Tobra Formation.The sedimentology of the Tobra Formation attests that the Salt Range,Pakistan,occupied a palaeogeographic position just beyond the maximum glacial extent during Upper Pennsylvanian-Asselian time.     

Facies Analysis, Sequence Stratigraphy and Diagenetic Studies of the Jurassic Carbonates of the Kohat Basin, Northwest Pakistan: Reservoir Implications

The present study deals with the depositional facies, diagenetic processes and sequence stratigraphy of the shallow marine carbonates of the Samana Suk Formation, Kohat Basin, in order to elucidate its reservoir quality. The Samana Suk Formation consists of thin to thick-bedded, oolitic, bioclastic, dolomitic and fractured limestone. Based on the integration of outcrop, petrographic and biofacies analyses, the unit is thought to have been deposited on a gentle homoclinal ramp in peritidal, lagoonal and carbonate shoal settings. Frequent variations in microfacies based sea-level curve have revealed seven Transgressive Systems Tracts (TSTs) and six Regressive Systems Tracts (RSTs). The unit has undergone various stages of diagenetic processes, including mechanical and chemical compaction, cementation, micritization, dissolution and dolomitization. The petrographic analyses show the evolution of porosity in various depositional and diagenetic phases. The fenestral porosity was mainly developed in peritidal carbonates during deposition, while the burial dissolution and diagenetic dolomitization have greatly enhanced the reservoir potential of the rock unit, as is further confirmed by the plug porosity and permeability analyses. The porosities and permeabilities were higher in shoal facies deposited in TSTs, as compared to lagoonal and peritidal facies, except for the dolomite in mudstone, deposited during RSTs. Hence good, moderate and poor reservoir potential is suggested for shoal, lagoonal and peritidal facies, respectively.     

Laboratory and numerical model studies of a negatively-buoyant jet discharged horizontally into a homogeneous rotating fluid

Abstract

The results of laboratory experiments and numerical model simulations are described in which the motion of a round, negatively-buoyant, turbulent jet discharged horizontally above a slope into a rotating homogeneous fluid has been investigated. For the laboratory study, flow visualisation data are presented to show the complex three-dimensional flow fields generated by the discharge. Analysis of the experimental data indicates that the spatial and temporal developments of the flow field are controlled primarily by the lateral and vertical discharge position of the jet (with respect to the bounding surfaces of the container of width W) and the specific momentum (M ₀) and buoyancy (B ₀) fluxes driving the jet. The flow is seen to be characterised by the formation of (i) a primary anticyclonic eddy (PCC) close to the source, (ii) an associated secondary cyclonic eddy (SCE) and (iii) a buoyancy-driven bottom boundary current along the right side boundary wall. For the parameter ranges studied, the size L _{p, s} and spatial location x _{p, s} of the PCC and SCE (and the nose velocity u _N of the boundary current) are shown to be only weakly-dependent upon the value of the mixed parameter M ₀Ω/B ₀, where Ω is the background rotation rate. Both L _p and x _p are shown to scale with the separation distance y?/W of the right side wall (y = 0) from the source (y = y?), both L _s and x _s scale satisfactorily with the length scale l _M (= M ₀ ^3/4/B ₀ ^½) and u _N is determined by the appropriate gravity current speed [(g']₀ H]^½ and the separation distance y?/W.

Numerical model results show good qualitative agreement with the laboratory data with regard to the generation of the PCC, SCE and boundary current as characteristic features of the flow in question. In addition, extension of the numerical model to

diagnose potential vorticity and plume thickness distributions for the laboratory cases allow the differences in momentum-and buoyancy-dominated flows to be clearly delineated. Specifically, the characteristic features of the SCE are shown to be strongly dependent upon the value of M ₀Ω/B ₀ for the buoyant jet flow; not least, the numerical model data are able to confirm the controlling role played by the boundary walls in the laboratory experiments. Quantitative agreement between the numerical and laboratory model data is fair; most significantly, the success of the former model in simulating the dominant flow features from the latter enables the reliable extension of the numerical model to be made to cases of direct oceanic interest.     

Timing of metamorphism,melting and exhumation of the Leo Pargil dome,northwest India

The Leo Pargil dome, northwest India, is a 30 km‐wide, northeast‐trending structure that is cored by gneiss and mantled by amphibolite facies metamorphic rocks that are intruded by a leucogranite injection complex. Oppositely dipping, normal‐sense shear zones that accommodated orogen‐parallel extension within a convergent orogen bound the dome. The broadly distributed Leo Pargil shear zone defines the southwest flank of the dome and separates the dome from the metasedimentary and sedimentary rocks in the hanging wall to the west and south. Thermobarometry and in‐situ U–Th–Pb monazite geochronology were conducted on metamorphic rocks from within the dome and in the hanging wall. These data were combined with U–Th–Pb monazite geochronology of leucogranites from the injection complex to evaluate the relationship between metamorphism, crustal melting, and the onset of exhumation. Rocks within the dome and in the hanging wall contain garnet, kyanite, and staurolite porphyroblasts that record prograde Barrovian metamorphism during crustal thickening that reached ～530–630 °C and ～7–8 kbar, ending by c. 30 Ma. Cordierite and sillimanite overgrowths on Barrovian assemblages within the dome record dominantly top‐down‐to‐the‐west shearing during near‐isothermal decompression of the footwall rocks to ～4 kbar by 23 Ma during an exhumation rate of 1.3 mm year^?1. Monazite growth accompanied Barrovian metamorphism and decompression. The leucogranite injection complex within the dome initiated at 23 Ma and continued to 18 Ma. These data show that orogen‐parallel extension in this part of the Himalaya occurred earlier than previously documented (>16 Ma). Contemporaneous onset of near‐isothermal decompression, top‐down‐to‐the‐west shearing, and injection of the decompression‐driven leucogranite complex suggests that early crustal melting may have created a weakened crust that was proceeded by localization of strain and shear zone development. Exhumation along the shear zone accommodated decompression by 23 Ma in a kinematic setting that favoured orogen‐parallel extension.     

Snow and stream-water chemistry of the Ganga headwater basin,Garhwal Himalaya,India

Abstract

Studies of the chemical composition of snowpack and stream water were carried out in a catchment having an area of 53km² (31°03′-30°55′N and 78°40′-78°51′E) in the Garhwal Himalaya, India. The dominant ions in the snowpack and stream water were Ca²⁺, Na⁺, NO^? ₃, SO^2- ₄ and HCO^? ₃. Solute patterns in the snowpack show preferential elution. Investigation of the chemical composition of stream water shows that meltwater changes its composition substantially as it passes through soil pathways to the stream. The groundwater flushing perhaps controls the chemical composition of meltwater in the early spring. However, in the period from July to September, the stream water carries the chemical signature of monsoonal precipitation.