Transistors as thermometers and bolometers

Summary This paper deals with the use of transistors for measurements of temperature and radiation. The results are based on the author's investigations in this field. Theoretical and practical aspects of such tele-thermometers and bolometers are discussed.

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Zusammenfassung Diese Arbeit behandelt die Benutzung von Transistoren für Temperatur- und Strahlungsmessungen. Die Ergebnisse basieren auf Untersuchungen, die der Verfasser auf diesem Gebiet durchgeführt hat. Theoretische und praktische Gesichtspunkte von Telethermometern and Bolometern dieser Art werden diskutiert.

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Paper presented on the 24 April 1957 at the Fifth General Assembly of the «Società Italiana di Geofisica e Meteorologia» (Genova, 23–25 April 1957).     

Characterization of sediments in an abandoned mining area; a case study of Mansfeld region,Germany

The distribution of selected heavy metals, including some radionuclides, metalloids and non-metals was determined in stream sediments in a region influenced by abandoned copper mining and ore processing activities. A considerable amount of the ore processing waste with a very complex composition and highly elevated concentrations of zinc, sulfur, lead, copper, arsenic, and a lot of other elements in the range between 100 and 1,000 mg/kg (Sb, Mn, Ni, Cr, Cd, Hg, and Ag) was piled up on mine dumps. The dispersion of the pollutants originating from this source and their environmental impact were investigated. Both, sediments and original waste material were studied to indicate the pathways and the mobilization behavior of different pollutants. For this purpose, the process of the elution of pollutants by application of different fractionation schemes was studied. The capabilities of different analytical techniques are shown for the analysis of solid samples (X-ray fluorescence spectrometry, Gamma-spectrometry) and liquid ones (ICP-atomic emission spectrometry, ICP-mass spectrometry and different techniques of atomic absorption). Additionally, the coupling of ion chromatography and ICP-MS detection was used to study the distribution of arsenic species in the sediment cores of a lake which acts as a natural sink for the region.     

Neotectonic Crustal Uplift on the Continents and its Possible Mechanisms. The Case of Southern Africa

According to a large volume of data an intensive crustal uplift began in the Oligocene over most of the continental areas after a long period of relative tectonic stability. This Neotectonic uplift formed most of the present positive topographic features on the continents, and its strong acceleration took place during the last several million years. In many regions the uplift was associated with magmatism. The main methods of studying the Neotectonic uplift are considered together with the data on the uplift of Southern Africa. In this area the uplift took place in the Early Miocene (up to 300 m) and in the Late Pliocene and Pleistocene (up to 900 m). It occurred without stretching or shortening of the crust. Rapid erosion of the lower part of mantle lithosphere by a plume material is proposed as a mechanism of the uplift. This material ascended from below and rapidly spread along the base of the lithosphere. Its spreading for 1000 km during a few million years is possible only under a low viscosity of normal asthenosphere (1019 Pa s) and a much lower viscosity of a plume material (2 × 1016 Pa s). As in Southern Africa, in most of the regions the Neotectonic uplift was associated with insignificant shortening or stretching of the crust. This indicates that in some regions a plume material ascended from below and rapidly spread along the base of the lithosphere and eroded the mantle lithosphere in vast areas beneath the continents. In regions with a hot asthenosphere a strong weakening of the mantle lithosphere which allows its erosion can be associated with a high temperature of the plume material. In regions where the asthenosphere is at moderate temperature weakening of the mantle lithosphere can result from infiltration of volatiles from the plume material.     

Biogeochemical aromatic markers in the sediments from mahakam delta (Indonesia)

Analysis of the tri-, tetraand pentaaromatic hydrocarbon fractions of several sediments (0–600 m) from the Mahakam Delta (Indonesia), indicate the predominance of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) diagenetically related to triterpenoid natural precursors. High resolution Shpol'skii spectrofluorometry (HRS) proved to be a valuable analytical tool, in conjunction with high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and capillary gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (CGC/MS), for the identification of individual components in Chromatographic fractions obtained after a high resolution reverse phase liquid chromatography.     

Distribution of aromatic steroids in geological samples: their evaluation as geochemical parameters

The distribution of ring-C monoaromatic and triaromatic steroid hydrocarbons of about fifty crude oils and sediments of various origins and ages were studied in order to test their validity as geochemical source and maturity parameters. Three ratios appeared to be useful maturity parameters, i.e. A/B cis to trans isomers in non-rearranged monoaromatics, mono/triaromatics and shortvs long-chain homologues. Four other variations may be considered as source parameters depending upon lithology or other palaeo-environmental conditions, i.e. rearranged vs non-rearranged monoaromatics, 5β/5α -methyl rearranged monoaromatics, carbon number distribution and occurrence of a yet unknown series of methylated triaromatic steroids. 5α-Methyl rearranged monoaromatics seem to be particularly important in anhydrites from sabkha environments. Recent identification of most aromatic steroid constituents occurring in geological samples confers on this class of compounds an increasing value as correlation parameters in geochemical studies.     

Parametric representation of heat and moisture fluxes in cloud-topped mixed layers

Aircraft measurements were made from the NCAR Electra in stratus and stratocumulus clouds off the coast of California in June 1976. Several types of cloud conditions were observed, including (1) a broken layer less than 100 m thick, capped by an inversion at ~1000 m, (2) a broken stratocumulus layer ~300 m thick with an inversion at ~500 m, and (3) a solid stratocumulus layer ~250 m thick with an inversion at ~500 m. Although these observations indicate that a variety of cloud conditions may exist in mixed layers, simple one-dimensional mixed-layer models implicitly assume a solid cloud layer with no unsaturated region within the cloud. In order to generalize these simple models, a parametric representation of the heat and moisture fluxes is considered. In this scheme, the fluxes are parameterized in terms of the product of a cloud mass flux and the characteristic difference between the thermodynamic properties of an updraft-downdraft circulation. This representation allows for an explicit representation of the buoyancy flux when the downdraft has no liquid water.Data collected during these flights were used to calculate heat and moisture fluxes and to obtain the mean difference in the thermodynamic properties of the updrafts and downdrafts at a given level. The mass flux was calculated using updraft-downdraft differences and the fluxes. The mass fluxes obtained using various thermodynamic quantities are examined for consistency. The vertical distribution of the mass flux is determined. These results indicate that a mass flux formulation could prove to be useful in modeling applications where cloud conditions may vary between solid and broken.     

Case studies on the origin of basalt: III. Petrogenesis of the Mauna Ulu eruption,Kilauea, 1969–1971

During the Mauna Ulu flank eruption on Kilauea, Hawaii, the concentrations in the lavas of the minor elements K, P, Na and Ti, and the incompatible trace elements (analyzed by isotope dilution) K, Rb, Cs, Ba, Sr, and the REE (except Yb) decreased monotonically and linearly with the time (or date) of the eruption. At the same time, the concentrations of the major elements and of Yb, and the ratios of K/Rb, K/Cs, Ba/Rb, ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr and ¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd remained constant. Most of the scatter in the raw concentration data is removed by a simple correction for olivine (plus chromite) fractionation previously established by Wright et al. (1975). These results are explained by simple equilibrium partial melting of a uniform source. The degree of melting increased by about 20% of the initial value during the course of the eruption. The trace element data are inverted by the method originated by Minster and Allègre (1978) and simplified by Hofmann and Feigenson (1983). The source has the following element (or isotope) ratios: K/Rb=501±7, Ba/Rb=14.0±0.5, Rb/Cs=95±7, Rb/Sr=0.0193 (+0.0045, –0.0090), (Ce/Ba)_CN= 1.1±0.1, (Sr/Ba)_CN=1.19 (+0.30, –0.19), ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr=0.703521±0.000016, and ¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd=0.512966±0.000008. The REE pattern of the source has a nearly flat or slightly negative slope (=relative LREE enrichment) between Ce and Dy and a strongly positive slope between Dy and Yb. However, this relative HREE enrichment is poorly constrained by the analytical data, is highly model dependent and may not be a true source feature. The Yb concentration in the source is particularly poorly constrained because it is essentially constant in the melts. On the other hand, this special feature demonstrates that Yb must be buffered by a mineral phase with a high partition coefficient for Yb, namely garnet. The calculated clinopyroxene/garnet ratio in the source is roughly equal to one. In contrast, the source of Kohala volcano had previously been found to contain little or no garnet.     

The influence of induced polarization on long-offset transient electromagnetic data

The diffusion of electromagnetic fields is dependent not only on conductivity, but also on magnetic permeability, dielectric permittivity and polarizability, i.e. dispersive conductivity. The long‐offset transient electromagnetic (LOTEM) method is mainly used to determine the spatial distribution of conductivity in the subsurface. However, earlier work on loop‐loop TEM suggests that transient EM methods can also be affected by induced polarization (IP). Numerous 1D forward calculations were carried out to study the IP effect on LOTEM data, using the Cole‐Cole relaxation model to simulate the polarizability of the ground. Besides the polarizability of each layer, the IP effect depends on the LOTEM field set‐up and the spatial distribution of conductivity in the ground. In particular, near‐surface layers with high chargeabilities can significantly distort the late time transients of the electric field components in the vicinity of the transmitter. The influence of polarizable layers on the magnetic field components can be neglected under normal circumstances. In 1997 and 1999, LOTEM measurements were carried out at Mt. Vesuvius in Italy to explore the geological structure of the volcano. Sensitivity studies on the effect of polarizable layers suggest that high chargeabilities in connection with conductive layers at greater depths would result in a detectable distortion of the electric field transients. Although the simultaneous IP measurements revealed high chargeabilities in a near‐surface layer, no evidence of IP effects could be found in the measured LOTEM data. We conclude that the observed chargeabilities are local and that 3D effects are probably present in the data. Another aspect is the measurement of the system response, which is usually measured by placing a receiver very close to the transmitter. Therefore, large distortions can be expected if near‐surface polarizable layers exist. This was verified in practice by field measurements in an area with high chargeabilities in Longerich, Cologne.     

DIffusion of Eu and Gd in basalt and obsidian

Tracer diffusion coefficients of ¹⁵³Gd and ¹⁵²Eu in olivine tholeiite have been determined at temperatures between 1150 and 1440°C. The results are identical for both tracers within experimental error. Between 1440 and 1320°C the diffusion coefficients are given by D(Eu, Gd) = 0.058 exp(?40,600/ RT). Between 1320 and 1210°C, the diffusion coefficients are constant at D = (1.4 ± 0.4) × 10^?7 cm²s^?1 and between 1210 and 1150°C, the D values drop irregularly to 4 × 10^?9 cm²s^?1. The liquidus temperature (1270°C) lies within the region of constant D. Such anomalous behavior has not been encountered in previous studies of Ca, Sr, Ba and Co diffusion in basalt. To explain the constant D value near the liquidus, we speculate that the structure of the melt changes as a function of temperature in such a way that the normal temperature dependence of the diffusivity is compensated. For example, the rare earth ions may be displaced from their (high temperature) octahedral coordination sites to other sites where they are more readily dissociated and therefore become progressively more mobile. The behavior below 1210°C may be the result of relatively stable complexes or molecules in the melt or of the formation of a REE bearing crystalline phase that has so far escaped detection. Preliminary results for Eu diffusion in obsidian are D (Eu, 800°C) = 5 × 10^?13 cm² s^?1 and D (Eu, 950°C) = 1.5 × 10^?11 cm² s^?1. These data are consistent with an activation energy of 59 Kcal mole^?1. These low diffusivities indicate that the partitioning of REE in crystallizing intermediate and acidic melts may be controlled by diffusion in the melt rather than equilibrium between the crystal surface and the bulk melt.The diffusion data are applied to partial melting in the mantle, in an attempt to explain how LREE enriched tholeiites may be derived from a LREE depleted mantle source. In this model LREE diffuse from garnet bearing regions that have small melt fractions into garnet free regions that have relatively large melt fractions. REE diffusion is so slow that this process is quantitatively significant only in small partially molten bodies (diameter ～1 km or less) or in larger, but strongly flattened bodies. Internal convective motion during diapiric rise would also increase the efficiency of the process.     

Niobium-tantalum Fractionation During Slab Subduction:Implications for the Formation of Continental Crust

Compared with the oceanic crust, knowledge about the formation of the continental crust (CC) is relatively poor. Although melting of subducted slabs in the early history of the Earth has been considered as the major way that shaped the chemical characteristics of the CC by most geologists, as the CC shares many characteristics with modern adakites, some geologists argued that Archean TTG was formed in the same way as modern arcs rather than slab melting, whereas others proposed that melting at the bottom of the thickened oceanic crust was more important. Recently,the debate is mainly focused on the unique subchondritic Nb/Ta value of the CC, and particularly, how Nb and Ta fractionated from each other and consequently how, in detail, the CC was built.