Spatial rainfall estimation by linear and non-linear co-kriging of radar-rainfall and raingage data

The feasibility of linear and nonlinear geostatistical estimation techniques for optimal merging of rainfall data from raingage and radar observations is investigated in this study by use of controlled numerical experiments. Synthetic radar and raingage data are generated with their hypothetical error structures that explicitly account for sampling characteristics of the two sensors. Numerically simulated rainfall fields considered to be ground-truth fields on 4×4 km grids are used in the generation of radar and raingage observations. Ground-truth rainfall fields consist of generated rainfall fields with various climatic characteristics that preserve the space-time covariance function of rainfall events in extratropical cyclonic storms. Optimal mean areal precipitation estimates are obtained based on the minimum variance, unbiased property of kriging techniques under the second order homogeneity assumption of rainfall fields. The evaluation of estimated rainfall fields is done based on the refinement of spatial predictability over what would be provided from each sensor individually. Attention is mainly given to removal of measurement error and bias that are synthetically introduced to radar measurements. The influence of raingage network density on estimated rainfall fields is also examined.     

Powder- and single crystal Mössbauer spectroscopy on synthetic fayalite

Mössbauer measurements on synthetic iron orthosilicate Fe₂SiO₄ (fayalite) were carried out in the antiferromagnetic spin state below T _N 65 K. The Mössbauer parameters isomer shift , inner magnetic field H(0), angle between H(0) and the z-component of the electric field gradient (efg), quadrupole splitting QS and asymmetry parameter were determined as a function of temperature. These parameters could be attributed to the two crystallographic sites M1 and M2.The smaller isomer shift on M1 with respect to M2 displays the more covalent character of the Fe-O bond on M1, which is supported by previous neutron diffraction experiments. H(0) shows a Brillouin-type behaviour with different fields on the two crystallographic sites (stronger on M1) and a small discontinuity at T = 23 K which corresponds with previous magnetic measurements. The quadrupole splitting is equal on both sites within error bars, in agreement with previous theoretical results and in contradiction to previous Mössbauer refinements published elsewhere.     

Tropospheric Ozone in a Global-Scale Three-Dimensional Lagrangian Model and Its Response to NOX Emission Controls

A three-dimensional Lagrangian tropospheric chemistry modelis used toinvestigate the impact of human activities on the tropospheric distributionofozone and hydroxyl radicals. The model describes the behaviour of 50 speciesincluding methane, carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen, sulphur dioxide andnineorganic compounds emitted from human activities and a range of other sources.Thechemical mechanism involves about 100 chemical reactions of which 16 arephotochemical reactions whose diurnal dependence is treated in full. The modelutilises a five minute chemistry time step and a three hour advection timestepfor the 50,000 air parcels. Meteorological data for the winds, temperatures,clouds and so on are taken from the UK Meteorological Office global model for1994 onwards. The impacts of a 50% reduction in European NO_Xemissions onglobal ozone concentrations are assessed. Surface ozoneconcentrations decrease in summertime and rise in wintertime, but to differentextents.     

Ionospheric Joule dissipation as a damping mechanism for high latitude ULF pulsations: Observational evidence

On 9 January 1979 an SI-excited pulsation event was observed by the Scandinavian Magnetometer Array. The pulsation period shows a clear variation with latitude which suggests decoupled oscillations of individual magnetic field shells. The pulsation amplitudes exhibit an e-fold decay with the damping rate γ varying both in longitudinal and latitudinal directions. Assuming Joule heating in the ionosphere as the dominant damping mechanism (and thus γ ～ Σ^?1_p) approximate height-integrated Pedersen conductivity profiles were calculated which fit well with previously observed Σ_p distributions. This is interpreted as observational evidence for ionosopheric Joule dissipation as the major damping mechanism for high-latitude ULF-pulsations.     

Variations in exospheric density at heights near 1100km, derived from satellite orbits

In an earlier paper, values of exospheric density were obtained from the orbit of Echo 2 for the years 1964–1965. The results indicated a semi-annual variation in density by a factor of between 2 and 3, considerably larger than predicted by existing atmospheric models.

These studies have now been extended to the beginning of 1967, using both Echo 2 and Calsphere 1, to show how the density is responding to increasing solar activity. Variations in density during 1964 have been analysed in more detail. The long-term variation associated with the solar cycle and the short-term variations associated with magnetic and solar disturbances agree with the variations expected on the basis of current models. The semi-annual variation is persisting to higher levels of solar activity, and although its amplitude is diminishing the factor of variation was still 1.6 in 1966.     

Energetic protons from the solar flare of March 24, 1966

Ten to 100 meV protons from the solar flare of March 24, 1966 were observed on the University of California scintillation counter on OGO-I. The short rise and decay times observed in the count rates of the 32 channels of pulse-height analysis show that scattering of the protons by the interplanetary field was much less important in this event than in previously observed proton flares. A diffusion theory in which D = M _r is found to be inadequate to account for the time behavior of the count rates of this event. Small fluctuations of the otherwise smooth decay phase may be due to flare protons reflected from the back of a shock front, which passed the earth on March 23.     

The OSO-1 solar neutron experiment

BF₃ counters on OSO-1 were used to look for solar neutrons by trying to observe a diurnal variation in count rate. No effect was observed and an upper limit was placed on the solar neutron flux at the earth of J _n < 2 × 10^–3 neut/cm²/sec of 10 keV < E _n < 10 meV for the period March to May 1962. No proton-producing flares occurred during this time, so the most obvious source of solar neutrons could not be studied. The emulsion experiment of Apparao et al., flown during this period, which seemed to indicate solar neutrons has probably been misinterpreted.     

A glancing incidence solar telescope for the soft x-ray region

This paper describes the instrumentation of an Aerobee rocket (NASA 4.95 GS) which was launched from White Sands Missile Range on May 20th 1966, to observe the Sun in the soft X-ray region. The experiment package, which was pointed at the sun by a control system stabilized about all three axes, carried two Wolter type I glancing incidence telescopes to photograph the sun in wavelength regions (determined by bandpass filters) between 3 and 75 Å, and two proportional counters to obtain flux data and rough spectral shapes in the regions 2–11 Å and 8–20 Å. The spatial resolution obtained was about 20 arc seconds. Limb brightening and polar darkening are very pronounced at the longer wavelengths. A tuft of emission was observed at the North Pole in addition to an arch-like structure on the NW limb. Several of the photographs are presented, and some preliminary results are discussed.     

Riometer observations in the polar caps of solar cosmic ray events during the IQSY

During the period of the IQSY, January 1964 through December 1965, the sun remained quiet, accelerating few energetic particles. There were many instances during the IQSY when lowenergy detectors on satellites and space probes registered small intensity increases. However, few of these events were associated with protons of energies exceeding 10 MeV. Moreover, the maximum intensities (E _p > 500 keV) were typically 1–8/cm²sec ster. Most of these events were below the threshold of riometer detection.The largest solar cosmic ray event observed in 1964 by polar-based riometers was that of March 16. This event was observed by 30 and 50 Mc/s riometers at McMurdo Sound, Antarctica, and Shepherd Bay, N.W.T., Canada.The largest event in 1965 occurred on February 5 and was the largest during the IQSY. It was associated with a class 2 flare at about 1750 UT, February 5. The propagation time between the sun and Earth was about one hour. This event was well observed by satellites, space probes, and riometers.This paper discusses primarily the 5 February 1965 event. Some discussion is also given to the 16 March 1964 event, other small events during the IQSY, and the recent event in March 1966.