Deformation-related microstructures in magmatic zircon and implications for diffusion

An undeformed glomeroporphyritic andesite from the Sunda Arc of Java, Indonesia, contains zoned plagioclase and amphibole glomerocrysts in a fine-grained groundmass and records a complex history of adcumulate formation and subsequent magmatic disaggregation. A suite of xenocrystic zircon records Proterozoic and Archaean dates whilst a discrete population of zoned, euhedral, igneous zircon yields a SHRIMP U-Pb crystallisation age of 9.3 ± 0.2 Ma. Quantitative microstructural analysis of zircon by electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) shows no deformation in the inherited xenocrysts, but intragrain orientation variations of up to 30° in 80% of the young zircon population. These variations are typically accommodated by both progressive crystallographic bending and discrete low angle boundaries that overprint compositional growth zoning. Dispersion of crystallographic orientations are dominantly by rotation about an axis parallel to the zircon c-axis [001], which is coincident with the dominant orientation of misorientation axes of adjacent analysis points in EBSD maps. Less common <100> misorientation axes account for minor components of crystallographic dispersion. These observations are consistent with zircon deformation by dislocation creep and the formation of tilt and twist boundaries associated with the operation of <001>{100} and <100>{010} slip systems. The restriction of deformation microstructures to large glomerocrysts and the young magmatic zircon population, and the absence of deformation within the host igneous rock and inherited zircon grains, indicate that zircon deformation took place within a low-melt fraction (<5% melt), mid-lower crustal cumulate prior to fragmentation during magmatic disaggregation and entrainment of xenocrystic zircons during magmatic decompression. Tectonic stresses within the compressional Sunda Arc at the time of magmatism are considered to be the probable driver for low-strain deformation of the cumulate in the late stages of initial crystallisation. These results provide the first evidence of crystal plastic dislocation creep in zircon associated with magmatic crystallisation and indicate that the development of crystal-plastic microstructures in zircon is not restricted to high-strain rocks. Such microstructures have previously been shown to enhance bulk diffusion of trace elements (U, Th and REE) in zircon. The development of deformation microstructures, and therefore multiple diffusion pathways in zircon in the magmatic environment, has significant implications for the interpretation of geochemical data from igneous zircon and the trace element budgets of melts due to the potential enhancement of bulk diffusion and dissolution rates.     

Near-Earth asteroid surface roughness depends on compositional class

Radar observations of 214 near-Earth asteroids (NEAs) reveal a very strong correlation of circular polarization ratio with visible-infrared taxonomic class, establishing distinct differences in the centimeter-to-several-decimeter structural complexity of objects in different spectral classes. The correlation may be due to the intrinsic mechanical properties of different mineralogical assemblages but also may reflect very different formation ages and collisional histories. The highest ratios are measured for groups associated with achondritic igneous rocky meteorites: the E class, whose parent body may be 3103 Eger, and the V class, derived from the mainbelt asteroid (and Dawn mission target) 4 Vesta.     

The eruptive history of the Mascota volcanic field,western Mexico: Age and volume constraints on the origin of andesite among a diverse suite of lamprophyric and calc-alkaline lavas

The Mascota volcanic field is located in the Jalisco Block of western Mexico, where the Rivera Plate subducts beneath the North American Plate. It spans an area of ∼ 2000 km² and contains ∼ 87 small cones and lava flows of minette, absarokite, basic hornblende lamprophyre, basaltic andesite, and andesite. There are no contemporary dacite or rhyolite lavas. New ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar ages are presented for 35 samples, which are combined with nine dates from the literature to document the eruptive history of this volcanic field. The oldest lavas (2.4 to 0.5 Ma) are found in the southern part of the field area, whereas the youngest lavas (predominantly < 0.5 Ma) are found in the northern portion. On the basis of these ages, field mapping, and the use of ortho aerial photographs and digital elevation models, it is estimated that a combined volume of 6.8 ± 3.1 km³ erupted in the last 2.4 Myr, which leads to an average eruption rate of ∼ 0.003 km³/kyr, and an average volume per eruptive unit of < 0.1 km³. The dominant lava type is andesite (2.1 ± 0.9 km³), followed by absarokite (1.6 ± 0.8 km³), basaltic andesite (1.2 ± 0.5 km³), basic hornblende lamprophyre (1.0 ± 0.4 km³), and minette (0.9 ± 0.5 km³). Thus, the medium-K andesite and basaltic andesite comprise approximately half (49%) of the erupted magma, with twice as much andesite as basaltic andesite, and they occur in close spatial and temporal association with the highly potassic, lamprophyric lavas. There is no time progression to the type of magma erupted. A wide variety of evidence indicate that the high-MgO (8–9 wt.% ) basaltic andesites (52–53% wt.% SiO₂) were formed by H₂O flux melting of the asthenopheric arc mantle wedge, whereas the mafic minettes and absarokites were formed by partial melting (induced by thermal erosion) of depleted lithospheric mantle containing phlogopite-bearing veins. There is only limited differentiation of the potassic magmas, with none more evolved than 55.4 wt.% SiO₂ and 4.4 wt.% MgO. This may be attributable to rapid crystallization of the mantle-derived melts in the deep crust, owing to their low volumes. Thus, the andesites (58–63 wt.% SiO₂) are notable for being both the most voluminous and the most evolved of all lava types in the Mascota volcanic field, which is not consistent with their extraction from extensively crystallized (60–70%), low-volume intrusions. Instead, the evidence supports the origin of the andesites by partial melting of amphibolitized, mafic lower crust, driven by the emplacement of the minettes, absarokites, and the high-Mg basaltic andesites.     

Nutrient availability in support of Karenia brevis blooms on the central West Florida Shelf: What keeps Karenia blooming?

Identifying nutrient sources, primarily nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P), sufficient to support high biomass blooms of the red tide dinoflagellate, Karenia brevis, has remained problematic. The West Florida Shelf is oligotrophic, yet populations >10⁶ cells L⁻¹ frequently occur and blooms can persist for months. Here we examine the magnitude and variety of sources for N and P that are available to support blooms. Annual average in situ or background concentrations of inorganic N in the region where blooms occur range 0.02–0.2 μM while inorganic P ranges 0.025–0.24 μM. Such concentrations would be sufficient to support the growth of populations up to ∼3×10⁴ cells L⁻¹ with at least a 1 d turnover rate. Organic N concentrations average 1–2 orders of magnitude greater than inorganic N, 8–14 μM while organic P concentrations average 0.2–0.5 μM. Concentrations of organic N are sufficient to support blooms >10⁵ cells L⁻¹ but the extent to which this complex mixture of N species is utilizable is unknown. Other sources of nutrients included in our analysis are aerial deposition, estuarine flux, benthic flux, zooplankton excretion, N₂-fixation, and subsequent release of organic and inorganic N by Trichodesmium spp., and release of N and P from dead and decaying fish killed by the blooms. Inputs based on atmospheric deposition, benthic flux, and N₂-fixation, were minor contributors to the flux required to support growth of populations >2.6×10⁴ cells L⁻¹. N and P from decaying fish could theoretically maintain populations at moderate concentrations but insufficient data on the flux and subsequent mixing rates does not allow us to calculate average values. Zooplankton excretion rates, based on measured zooplankton population estimates and excretion rates could also supply all of the N and P required to support populations of 10⁵ and 10⁶ cells L⁻¹, respectively, but excretion is considered as “regenerated” nutrient input and can only maintain biomass rather than contribute to “new” biomass. The combined estuarine flux from Tampa Bay, Charlotte Harbor, and the Caloosahatchee River can supply a varying, but at times significant level of N and P to meet growth and photosynthesis requirements for populations of approximately 10⁵ cells L⁻¹ or below. Estimates of remineralization of dead fish could supply a significant proportion of bloom maintenance requirements but the rate of supply must still be determined. Overall, a combination of sources is required to maintain populations >10⁶ cells L⁻¹.     

The influence of wettability on NAPL dissolution fingering

Laboratory experiments and numerical simulations in homogeneous porous media were used to investigate the influence of porous medium wettability on the formation and growth of preferential dissolution pathways, dissolution fingers, during nonaqueous phase liquid (NAPL) dissolution. As the porous medium became increasingly NAPL-wet, dissolution fingers grew wider and slower. This result was observed in physical experiments with 0% and 100% NAPL-wet conditions and confirmed with numerical simulations at these and intermediate wettabilities. A previously derived expression for an upscaled mass transfer rate coefficient that accounts for the growth of dissolution fingers was used to quantify the effect of fingering on overall NAPL removal rates. For the test cases evaluated, NAPL dissolution fingering controlled the overall rate of NAPL dissolution after the dissolution front moved 4 cm in 0% NAPL-wet conditions and 18 cm in 100% NAPL-wet conditions. Thus, even in completely NAPL-wet media dissolution fingering may control the overall rate of NAPL dissolution after relatively short travel distances. The importance of NAPL dissolution fingering in heterogeneous systems with spatially varying NAPL saturations, though, remains an important question for future work.     

A comparative overview of weathering intensity and HCO3 flux in the world's major rivers with emphasis on the Changjiang,Huanghe, Zhujiang (Pearl) and Mississippi Rivers

In this paper, general relationships of riverine bicarbonate concentrations and fluxes as a function of drainage basin mineral content and runoff are examined using a database of the 25 largest rivers in the world. Specific HCO₃⁻ flux normalized to unit basin area, which peaks in the mid latitudes, was found to be strongly correlated with the carbonate mineral content of river basins, while river HCO₃⁻ concentration was related to the balance of precipitation and evaporation. Within this global context, the weathering patterns of CO₂ in a few large rivers (Changjiang, Huanghe, Pearl, and Mississippi rivers) were examined in further detail. The Zhujiang (Pearl River), especially its largest branch (Xijiang), was characterized by the highest specific weathering rate among all the world's large rivers due to an exceptionally high carbonate mineral content (over 80%) in its drainage basin and its warm and wet environment. It has a moderate level of HCO₃⁻ concentration, however, due to dilution by relatively high precipitation in the watershed. In stark contrast, the Huanghe (Yellow River) has one of the lowest specific weathering rates because of low carbonate mineral content and a dry climate. However, it has a high HCO₃⁻ concentration due largely to the concentrating effects of high evaporative water loss, as a result of arid weather and the agricultural use of water through irrigation systems, as well as carbonate-containing surficial deposits (i.e., loess). The strong correlation between specific HCO₃⁻ fluxes and discharge in all four rivers with different discharge seasonality suggests that higher precipitation in drainage basins promotes higher weathering rates.     

Response of landfill clay liners to extended periods of freezing

This paper presents the results of a physical model study of the performance of landfill clay cover liners subjected to extended freezing periods. Three proposed designs for a prototype cover liner were evaluated with a primary objective being the determination of frost penetration resulting from the sub-freezing temperatures imposed as an upper boundary condition to the model. The ultimate performance of the three liner designs were compared on the basis of frost penetration, leakage through the liner, and frost heave. The observed depth of frost penetration was compared to that predicted using a simplified analytical solution of the thermodynamic problem, in addition to measured field behavior.

The laboratory experiment utilizes a 1.8 m² tank, of ca 2.1 m depth. The tank is loaded with clay to the specifications required for landfill liners. Three different landfill cover liner designs were modeled in the experimental tank. The performance of the three designs, as measured by a variety of observations, were compared. Frost heave was measured for each design and was found to vary between 3.8 and 4.3 cm. The results indicate the depth of frost penetration was similar for all designs tested (29.2–31.7 cm), although the design which included a soil drainage layer had superior leakage performance.     

The continental tectosphere and Earth's long-wavelength gravity field

To estimate the average density contrast associated with the continental tectosphere, we separately project the degree 2–36 non-hydrostatic geoid and free-air gravity anomalies onto several tectonic regionalizations. Because both the regionalizations and the geoid have distinctly red spectra, we do not use conventional statistical analysis, which is based on the assumption of white spectra. Rather, we utilize a Monte Carlo approach that incorporates the spectral properties of these fields. These simulations reveal that the undulations of Earth's geoid correlate with surface tectonics no better than they would were it randomly oriented with respect to the surface. However, our simulations indicate that free-air gravity anomalies correlate with surface tectonics better than almost 98% of our trials in which the free-air gravity anomalies were randomly oriented with respect to Earth's surface. The average geoid anomaly and free-air gravity anomaly over platforms and shields are significant at slightly better than the one-standard-deviation level: −11±8 m and −4±3 mgal, respectively. After removing from the geoid estimated contributions associated with (1) a simple model of the continental crust and oceanic lithosphere, (2) the lower mantle, (3) subducted slabs, and (4) remnant glacial isostatic disequilibrium, we estimate a platform and shield signal of −8±4 m. We conclude that there is little contribution of platforms and shields to the gravity field, consistent with their keels having small density contrasts. Using this estimate of the platform and shield signal, and previous estimates of upper-mantle shear-wave travel-time perturbations, we find that the average value of ∂lnρ/∂lnν_s within the 140–440 km depth range is 0.04±0.02. A continental tectosphere with an isopycnic (equal-density) structure (∂lnρ/∂lnν_s=0) enforced by compositional variations is consistent with this result at the 2.0σ level. Without compositional buoyancy, the continental tectosphere would have an average ∂lnρ/∂lnν_s≈0.25, exceeding our estimate by 10σ.