Atmospheric Corrections Using MODTRAN for TOA and Surface BRDF Characteristics from High Resolution Spectroradiometric/ Angular Measurements from a Helicopter Platform

l. IntroductionThe cIassicaI definition of bi--directional reflectance--distribution function (BRDF) is aderivative, distribution function, relatlng the irradiance incident from one given direction tolts contribution to the radiance renected in another direct1on (N1codemus et al., l977).f r (0,, rp,; 0,, rp, )= dL, (0,, P,; 0,, 9,; E, )/ dE, (0,, 9,) [sr-- 1 ], (l)where 0 (zenith angle) and 9 (azimuth angle) together indicate a direction, the subscr1pt i indi-cates quantities associated wi…     

Sound velocity measurements in dhcp-FeH up to 70 GPa with inelastic X-ray scattering: Implications for the composition of the Earth's core

We have determined the density evolution of the sound velocity of dhcp-FeH_x (x ≈ 1) up to 70 GPa at room temperature, by inelastic X-ray scattering and by X-ray diffraction. We find that the variation of V_P with density is different for the ferromagnetic and nonmagnetic dhcp-FeH_x, and that only nonmagnetic dhcp-FeH_x follows Birch's law. Combining our results with Birch's law for iron and assuming an ideal two-component mixing model, we obtain an upper bound of the hydrogen content in the Earth's inner core, 0.23(6) wt.% H, corresponding to FeH_0.13(3). The iron alloy with 0.23(6) wt.% H can satisfy the density, and compressional and shear sound velocities of the PREM inner core, assuming that there are no other light elements in the inner core.     

The Relation Between Large-Scale Coronal Propagating Fronts and Type II Radio Bursts

Large-scale, wave-like disturbances in extreme-ultraviolet (EUV) and type II radio bursts are often associated with coronal mass ejections (CMEs). Both phenomena may signify shock waves driven by CMEs. Taking EUV full-disk images at an unprecedented cadence, the Atmospheric Imaging Assembly (AIA) onboard the Solar Dynamics Observatory has observed the so-called EIT waves or large-scale coronal propagating fronts (LCPFs) from their early evolution, which coincides with the period when most metric type II bursts occur. This article discusses the relation of LCPFs as captured by AIA with metric type II bursts. We show examples of type II bursts without a clear LCPF and fast LCPFs without a type II burst. Part of the disconnect between the two phenomena may be due to the difficulty in identifying them objectively. Furthermore, it is possible that the individual LCPFs and type II bursts may reflect different physical processes and external factors. In particular, the type II bursts that start at low frequencies and high altitudes tend to accompany an extended arc-shaped feature, which probably represents the 3D structure of the CME and the shock wave around it, and not just its near-surface track, which has usually been identified with EIT waves. This feature expands and propagates toward and beyond the limb. These events may be characterized by stretching of field lines in the radial direction and may be distinct from other LCPFs, which may be explained in terms of sudden lateral expansion of the coronal volume. Neither LCPFs nor type II bursts by themselves serve as necessary conditions for coronal shock waves, but these phenomena may provide useful information on the early evolution of the shock waves in 3D when both are clearly identified in eruptive events.     

基于全球降水数据估计值的地表径流模拟--以长江上游地区为例

为了评价在相对较短时间内针对长江上游地区地表水径流所建立模型的模拟效果,以及检验以GCM模型和其他卫星数据所估算的降水数据作为输入数据的可行性,选择分布式水文模型HSPF以及1987年和1988年的ISLSCP降水数据作为输入数据。模型模拟结果表明:从整个长江上游地区看,在校正期内,5天平均流量的Nash–Sutcliffe相关系数(R2) 为0.94;在验证期内,Nash-Sutcliffe相关系数(R2) 为0.95。此外,该模型对长江上游主要支流的5天平均流量的模拟效果也很好,R2的值在0.46到0.96之间。例外的情况主要发生在沱江和嘉陵江,模型对2年洪水期的峰值流速的估计值偏低,沱江只有实际值的71%,嘉陵江只有实际值的61%。ISLSCP估计的降水比实际测量的降水频繁且程度要弱,这可能是HSPF不能在所有时间和所有区域都具有较好模拟效果的一个主要原因。     

Seasonal Variation in Host Utilization of Epiphytic Lacuna Species in Mixed Algal and Surfgrass Stands in Japan

Abstract.  On the subtidal rocky shore of Akkeshi Bay, Hokkaido, Japan, the congeneric phytal gastropods, Lacuna uchidai and L. decorata , inhabit the multispecific vegetation consisting of the surfgrass, Phyllospadix iwatensis and the brown alga, Cystoseira hakodatensis . We studied the phenologies of Phyllospadix and Cystoseira , host utilization patterns and life histories of Lacuna spp. to examine how these gastropods accommodate the seasonal fluctuations of the habitat. The preferences for macrophyte by Lacuna spp. were examined by laboratory experiments. The phenologies of macrophytes, the seasonal and between-substrata variations of Lacuna spp. were examined by monthly sampling from Phyllospadix and Cystoseira beds between May 1999 and May 2000. Lacuna uchidai showed significant preference for Phyllospadix , whereas L. decorata had no preference for a particular substratum. Most L. uchidai were collected from the Phyllospadix bed, however L. decorata appeared in both Phyllospadix and Cystoseira beds. The peak of new recruit of L. uchidai coincided with that of Phyllospadix biomass. The synchronization of life cycle with the phenology of the host may be adaptive for using the limited habitat. Seasonal variation in density of L. decorata coincided with neither patterns for Phyllospadix nor Cystoseira . Seasonal variation in density and size frequency distribution suggested L. decorata migrated among adjacent macrophytes. Although it was a little vague, this hypothesis was probably the best explanation of our results. Our study shows that two co-occurring Lacuna species utilize the macrophytes as habitats by the different life histories and utilization patterns and, may be alternatively accommodated to the seasonal fluctuations of their habitats.     

Dissolved iron and zinc in Sagami Bay and the Izu-Ogasawara Trench

Using a clean seawater sampling system for trace metals onboard the R. V. Shinsei-Maru, newly launched in 2013, we investigated the vertical distributions of dissolved iron and zinc in Sagami Bay and the Izu-Ogasawara Trench. We applied appropriate clean sampling and filtering processes for trace metals, so that uncontaminated seawater samples were successfully collected. The distribution of zinc in the trench area was similar to that of silicate and the same as that previously reported in the subtropical North Pacific. There were spatial variations in the iron (Fe) distribution in the trench areas. We used previously reported information about biogeochemical cycling in the trench area, and found that Fe has a residence time of 29 years in the water column. The short residence time of Fe (29 years) corresponds to the vertical variations of dissolved Fe in the water column.     

Melting of iron–silicon alloy up to the core–mantle boundary pressure: implications to the thermal structure of the Earth’s core

The melting temperature of Fe–18 wt% Si alloy was determined up to 119 GPa based on a change of laser heating efficiency and the texture of the recovered samples in the laser-heated diamond anvil cell experiments. We have also investigated the subsolidus phase relations of Fe–18 wt% Si alloy by the in-situ X-ray diffraction method and confirmed that the bcc phase is stable at least up to 57 GPa and high temperature. The melting curve of the alloy was fitted by the Simon’s equation, P(GPa)/a = (T _m(K)/T ₀) ^c , with parameters, T ₀ = 1,473 K, a = 3.5 ± 1.1 GPa, and c = 4.5 ± 0.4. The melting temperature of bcc Fe–18 wt% Si alloy is comparable with that of pure iron in the pressure range of this work. The melting temperature of Fe–18 wt% Si alloy is estimated to be 3,300–3,500 K at 135 GPa, and 4,000–4,200 K at around 330 GPa, which may provide the lower bound of the temperatures at the core–mantle boundary and the inner core–outer core boundary if the light element in the core is silicon.     

Free oscillations of a laterally heterogenous and anelastic earth

We calculate normal modes of the laterally heterogeneous and anelastic earth model by using the variational method to include the coupling of the modes due to the asphericity of the earth. If the aspherical anelasticity correlates with the heterogeneity of elastic velocity structure, the quality factorQ of the split singlets has a correlation with the eigenfrequency. This can cause a center frequency shift of the spectral peak with time. We perform a synthetic experiment to examine whether the magnitude of the shift can become an observable for the realistic lateral heterogeneity model of anelasticity. The result of the experiment reveals that the shift of the center frequency is consistent with the initial estimate for the fundamental spheroidal modes used in the experiment. We then examine the actual seismograms of the June 9, 1994, Bolivian earthquake to determine if this shift of center frequency can be observed. Although the amount of the center frequency shift of each multiplet is large, there is no consistent shift of the center frequency that is predicted in the synthetic experiment.     

Behavior of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons at impact shock: Its implication for survival of organic materials delivered to the early Earth

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) with a hydrous or an unhydrous mineral matrix were impacted and analyzed, to study the behavior of PAHs against shock. Results of the shock experiments suggested that volatiles discharged from the hydrous mineral did not influence the behavior of PAHs against shock. The shocked samples contained unreacted starting PAHs, soot-like materials insoluble in dichloromethane, and secondarily formed PAHs with molecular weights ranging from 128 to 404. Approximately 95% of starting PAHs decomposed at ∼30 GPa and the dominant product was the soot-like materials. Formation mechanisms of the shock products were explained by reaction processes under static high pressure-temperature conditions (e.g., carbonization, radical addition reaction, ring cross linking, and methylation).We applied these results to estimate the survival degree of organic matter delivered by carbonaceous asteroids against their impact pressures at the accretion stage of early Earth. If we use a simplified homogeneous accretion model without atmosphere to represent the stage, the radius of Earth causing 30 GPa, the pressure at which PAHs almost decompose, was calculated as 2270 km (4.0 km s⁻¹ of impact velocity) for the impact of carbonaceous asteroids. In the case of impactors striking not land but oceans on the early Earth, the impact velocity for the decomposition of PAHs was estimated to be 6.0 km s⁻¹. These impact velocities should have been commonly realized on the early Earth, due to the airburst and the aerobreak of impactors in the dense atmosphere. The early Earth should have been a favorable environment for obtaining and maintaining a large quantity of prebiotic organic materials leading to life.