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941.
Helena O?ahe?ová Ján O?ahe? Robert Pazúr Richard Hrivnák Milan Valachovi? 《Limnologica》2011,41(4):316-324
The aquatic vegetation of ?í?ov Lake in the Danube floodplain, which is listed in the Ramsar Convention, was investigated to address three main questions: (1) how have landscape composition and the structures of the lake and its buffer zone changed from the mid-20th century; (2) how have species richness and the abundance of the aquatic macrophyte assemblage in this lake ecosystem changed over the last 34 years; and (3) which landscape metrics can best explain these temporal changes for floating-leaved macrophytes? Two methodological approaches, remote sensing and botanical field surveys, were applied. Historical (1949, 1970, 1990) and contemporary (2006) aerial photographs were analysed to determine land cover. Landscape configuration and structure were analysed using eight landscape metrics selected in advance to measure spatio-temporal changes and the fragmentation of the lake ecosystem and its corresponding buffer zone. The species diversity, abundance and distribution of true aquatic macrophytes were surveyed eleven times in five survey stretches between 1973 and 2007.At the landscape level, a decrease in the area covered by floating-leaved macrophytes, as well as an increase in open water surface and fragmentation of the land cover classes in the lake ecosystem, were recorded from 1949 to 2006. Overall, 30 true aquatic macrophytes were found from 1973 to 2007. Species richness did not change considerably, but the abundance of aquatic species fluctuated over the years. Three groups of true aquatic vegetation, based on common structural characteristics, were found in 1973–1983, 1989–2002, and 2004–2007 over the last 34 years. The landscape metrics NP, PD, LPI, and SHDI, which all express patterns of landscape fragmentation mostly indicate temporal changes in floating-leaved macrophytes. 相似文献
942.
Andrea Bistacchi W. Ashley Griffith Steven A. F. Smith Giulio Di Toro Richard Jones Stefan Nielsen 《Pure and Applied Geophysics》2011,168(12):2345-2363
Fault surface roughness is a principal factor influencing earthquake mechanics, and particularly rupture initiation, propagation, and arrest. However, little data currently exist on fault surfaces at seismogenic depths. Here, we investigate the roughness of slip surfaces from the seismogenic strike-slip Gole Larghe Fault Zone, exhumed from ca. 10 km depth. The fault zone exploited pre-existing joints and is hosted in granitoid rocks of the Adamello batholith (Italian Alps). Individual seismogenic slip surfaces generally show a first phase of cataclasite production, and a second phase with beautifully preserved pseudotachylytes of variable thickness. We determined the geometry of fault traces over almost five orders of magnitude using terrestrial laser-scanning (LIDAR, ca. 500 to <1 m scale), and 3D mosaics of high-resolution rectified digital photographs (10 m to ca. 1 mm scale). LIDAR scans and photomosaics were georeferenced in 3D using a Differential Global Positioning System, allowing detailed multiscale reconstruction of fault traces in Gocad®. The combination of LIDAR and high-resolution photos has the advantage, compared with classical LIDAR-only surveys, that the spatial resolution of rectified photographs can be very high (up to 0.2 mm/pixel in this study), allowing for detailed outcrop characterization. Fourier power spectrum analysis of the fault traces revealed a self-affine behaviour over 3–5 orders of magnitude, with Hurst exponents ranging between 0.6 and 0.8. Parameters from Fourier analysis have been used to reconstruct synthetic 3D fault surfaces with an equivalent roughness by means of 2D Fourier synthesis. Roughness of pre-existing joints is in a typical range for this kind of structure. Roughness of faults at small scale (1 m to 1 mm) shows a clear genetic relationship with the roughness of precursor joints, and some anisotropy in the self-affine Hurst exponent. Roughness of faults at scales larger than net slip (>1–10 m) is not anisotropic and less evolved than at smaller scales. These observations are consistent with an evolution of roughness, due to fault surface processes, that takes place only at scales smaller or comparable to the observed net slip. Differences in roughness evolution between shallow and deeper faults, the latter showing evidences of seismic activity, are interpreted as the result of different weakening versus induration processes, which also result in localization versus delocalization of deformation in the fault zone. From a methodological point of view, the technique used here is advantageous over direct measurements of exposed fault surfaces in that it preserves, in cross-section, all of the structures which contribute to fault roughness, and removes any subjectivity introduced by the need to distinguish roughness of original slip surfaces from roughness induced by secondary weathering processes. Moreover, offsets can be measured by means of suitable markers and fault rocks are preserved, hence their thickness, composition and structural features can be characterised, providing an integrated dataset which sheds new light on mechanisms of roughness evolution with slip and concomitant fault rock production. 相似文献
943.
Steven A. F. Smith Andrea Billi Giulio Di Toro Richard Spiess 《Pure and Applied Geophysics》2011,168(12):2365-2393
Earthquakes in central Italy, and in other areas worldwide, often nucleate within and rupture through carbonates in the upper crust. During individual earthquake ruptures, most fault displacement is thought to be accommodated by thin principal slip zones. This study presents detailed microstructural observations of the slip zones of the seismically active Tre Monti normal fault zone. All of the slip zones cut limestone, and geological constraints indicate exhumation from <2?km depth, where ambient temperatures are ?100°C. Scanning electron microscope observations suggest that the slip zones are composed of 100% calcite. The slip zones of secondary faults in the damage zone contain protocataclastic and cataclastic fabrics that are cross-cut by systematic fracture networks and stylolite dissolution surfaces. The slip zone of the principal fault has much more microstructural complexity, and contains a 2?C10?mm thick ultracataclasite that lies immediately beneath the principal slip surface. The ultracataclasite itself is internally zoned; 200?C300???m-thick ultracataclastic sub-layers record extreme localization of slip. Syn-tectonic calcite vein networks spatially associated with the sub-layers suggest fluid involvement in faulting. The ultracataclastic sub-layers preserve compelling microstructural evidence of fluidization, and also contain peculiar rounded grains consisting of a central (often angular) clast wrapped by a laminated outer cortex of ultra-fine-grained calcite. These ??clast-cortex grains?? closely resemble those produced during layer fluidization in other settings, including the basal detachments of catastrophic landslides and saturated high-velocity friction experiments on clay-bearing gouges. An overprinting foliation is present in the slip zone of the principal fault, and electron backscatter diffraction analyses indicate the presence of a weak calcite crystallographic preferred orientation (CPO) in the fine-grained matrix. The calcite c-axes are systematically inclined in the direction of shear. We suggest that fluidization of ultracataclastic sub-layers and formation of clast-cortex grains within the principal slip zone occurred at high strain rates during propagation of seismic ruptures whereas development of an overprinting CPO occurred by intergranular pressure solution during post-seismic creep. Further work is required to document the range of microstructures in localized slip zones that cross-cut different lithologies, and to compare natural slip zone microstructures with those produced in controlled deformation experiments. 相似文献
944.
Paul A. Bukaveckas Amy MacDonald Anthony Aufdenkampe John H. Chick John E. Havel Richard Schultz Ted R. Angradi David W. Bolgrien Terri M. Jicha Debra Taylor 《Aquatic Sciences - Research Across Boundaries》2011,73(3):419-436
Main channel habitats of the Ohio, Missouri, and Upper Mississippi Rivers were surveyed during the summers of 2004, 2005 and
2006 using a probability-based sampling design to characterize inter-annual and inter-river variation in suspended chlorophyll
a (CHLa) and related variables. Large (fivefold) differences in CHLa were observed with highest concentrations in the Upper
Mississippi (32.3 ± 1.8 μg L−1), intermediate values in the Missouri (19.7 ± 1.1 μg L−1) and lowest concentrations in the Ohio (6.8 ± 0.5 μg L−1). Inter-annual variation was small in comparison to inter-river differences suggesting that basin-specific factors exert
greater control over river-wide CHLa than regional-scale processes influencing climate and discharge. The rivers were characterized
by variable but generally low light conditions as indicated by depth-averaged underwater irradiance <4 E m−2 day−1 and high ratios of channel depth to euphotic depth (>3). Despite poor light conditions, regression analyses revealed that
TP was the best single predictor of CHLa (R
2 = 0.40), though models incorporating both light and TP performed better (R
2 = 0.60). Light and nutrient conditions varied widely within rivers and were inversely related, suggesting that riverine phytoplankton
may experience shifts in resource limitation during transport. Inferred grazing and sedimentation losses were large yet CHLa
concentrations did not decline downriver indicating that growth and loss processes were closely coupled. The contribution
by algae to suspended particulate organic matter in these rivers (mean = 41%) was similar to that of lakes (39%) but lower
relative to reservoirs (61%). 相似文献
945.
We estimate climate sensitivity from observations, using the deseasonalized fluctuations in sea surface temperatures (SSTs) and the concurrent fluctuations in the top-of-atmosphere (TOA) outgoing radiation from the ERBE (1985–1999) and CERES (2000–2008) satellite instruments. Distinct periods of warming and cooling in the SSTs were used to evaluate feedbacks. An earlier study (Lindzen and Choi, 2009) was subject to significant criticisms. The present paper is an expansion of the earlier paper where the various criticisms are taken into account. The present analysis accounts for the 72 day precession period for the ERBE satellite in a more appropriate manner than in the earlier paper. We develop a method to distinguish noise in the outgoing radiation as well as radiation changes that are forcing SST changes from those radiation changes that constitute feedbacks to changes in SST. We demonstrate that our new method does moderately well in distinguishing positive from negative feedbacks and in quantifying negative feedbacks. In contrast, we show that simple regression methods used by several existing papers generally exaggerate positive feedbacks and even show positive feedbacks when actual feedbacks are negative. We argue that feedbacks are largely concentrated in the tropics, and the tropical feedbacks can be adjusted to account for their impact on the globe as a whole. Indeed, we show that including all CERES data (not just from the tropics) leads to results similar to what are obtained for the tropics alone — though with more noise. We again find that the outgoing radiation resulting from SST fluctuations exceeds the zerofeedback response thus implying negative feedback. In contrast to this, the calculated TOA outgoing radiation fluxes from 11 atmospheric models forced by the observed SST are less than the zerofeedback response, consistent with the positive feedbacks that characterize these models. The results imply that the models are exaggerating climate sensitivity. 相似文献
946.
Gary J. Barnes John M. Lumley Phill I. Houghton Richard J. Gleave 《Geophysical Prospecting》2011,59(1):176-187
Noise levels in marine and airborne full tensor gravity gradiometer surveys together with conventional land, marine and airborne gravity surveys are estimated and analysed in gridded form, resulting in relations that detail how these different survey systems can be compared analytically. After defining survey parameters including line spacing, speed and instrument bandwidth, the relations estimate the noise levels that result on either grids of gravity (gz) or gravity gradient (Gzz) as a function of the spatial filtering often applied during geological interpretation. Such comparisons are believed to be a useful preliminary guide for survey selection and planning. 相似文献
947.
Katharina?Marquardt Elena?Petrishcheva Emmanuel?Gardés Richard?Wirth Rainer?Abart Wilhelm?Heinrich 《Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology》2011,162(4):739-749
Yb-Y inter-diffusion along a single grain boundary of a synthetic yttrium aluminium garnet (YAG) bicrystal has been studied
using analytical transmission electron microscopy (ATEM). To investigate the diffusion, a thin-film containing Yb as the diffusant
was deposited perpendicular to the bicrystal grain boundary by pulsed laser deposition (PLD). Structural properties and their
change with time in both the diffusant source and the grain boundary are reported. The diffusion profiles are incorporated
in a numerical diffusion model, which is applied to determine the grain boundary diffusion coefficient, D
gb
, at 1.723 K it is equal to 3 × 10−15 m2/s. We find that grain boundary diffusion is 4.85 orders of magnitude faster than volume diffusion, which was determined from
the same diffusion experiment. This result is discussed in the context of special versus general grain boundaries. Finally,
we successfully tested the capability of synchrotron-based nano-X-ray fluorescence analysis to map micro-chemical patterns
in two dimensions with sub-micrometre resolution. 相似文献
948.
An agent-based model for risk-based flood incident management 总被引:3,自引:1,他引:2
Effective flood incident management (FIM) requires successful operation of complex, interacting human and technological systems.
A dynamic agent-based model of FIM processes has been developed to provide new insights which can be used for policy analysis
and other practical applications. The model integrates remotely sensed information on topography, buildings and road networks
with empirical survey data to fit characteristics of specific communities. The multiagent simulation has been coupled with
a hydrodynamic model to estimate the vulnerability of individuals to flooding under different storm surge conditions, defence
breach scenarios, flood warning times and evacuation strategies. A case study in the coastal town of Towyn in the United Kingdom
has demonstrated the capacity of the model to analyse the risks of flooding to people, support flood emergency planning and
appraise the benefits of flood incident management measures. 相似文献
949.
Sulfur biogeochemical cycling and novel Fe-S mineralization pathways in a tidally re-flooded wetland 总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1
Edward D. Burton Richard T. Bush Scott G. Johnston Leigh A. Sullivan Annabelle F. Keene 《Geochimica et cosmochimica acta》2011,75(12):3434-3451
Sulfur biogeochemical cycling and associated Fe-S mineralization processes exert a major influence over acidity dynamics, electron flow and contaminant mobility in wetlands, benthic sediments and groundwater systems. While S biogeochemical cycling has been studied intensively in many environmental settings, relatively little direct information exists on S cycling in formerly drained wetlands that have been remediated via tidal re-flooding. This study focuses on a tidal wetland that was drained in the 1970s (causing severe soil and water acidification), and subsequently remediated by controlled re-flooding in 2002. We examine reduction rates and Fe-S mineralization at the tidal fringe, 7 years after the commencement of re-flooding. The initial drainage of the wetland examined here caused in-situ pyrite (FeS2) oxidation, resulting in the drained soil layers being highly acidic and rich in -bearing Fe(III) minerals, including jarosite (KFe3(SO4)2(OH)6). Tidal re-flooding has neutralized much of the previous acidity, with the pore-water pH now mostly spanning pH 5-7. The fastest rates of in-situ reduction (up to ∼300 nmol cm−3 day−1) occur within the inter-tidal zone in the near-surface soil layers (to ∼60 cm below ground surface). The reduction rates correlate with pore-water dissolved organic C concentrations, thereby suggesting that electron donor supply was the predominant rate determining factor. Elemental S was a major short-term product of reduction, comprising up to 69% of reduced inorganic S in the near-surface soil layers. This enrichment in elemental S can be partly attributed to interactions between biogenic H2S and jarosite - a process that also contributed to enrichment in pore-water Fe2+ (up to 55 mM) and (up to 50 mM). The iron sulfide thiospinel, greigite (Fe3S4), was abundant in near-surface soil layers within the inter- to sub-tidal zone where tidal water level fluctuations created oscillatory redox conditions. There was evidence for relatively rapid pyrite re-formation within the re-flooded soil layers. However, the results indicate that pyrite re-formation has occurred mainly in the lower formerly drained soil layers, whereas the accumulation of elemental S and greigite has been confined towards the soil surface. The discovery that pyrite formation was spatially decoupled from that of elemental S and greigite challenges the concept that greigite is an essential precursor required for sedimentary pyrite formation. In fact, the results suggest that greigite and pyrite may represent distinct end-points of divergent Fe-S mineralization pathways. Overall, this study highlights novel aspects of Fe-S mineralization within tidal wetlands that have been drained and re-flooded, in contrast to normal, undisturbed tidal wetlands. As such, the long-term biogeochemical trajectory of drained and acidified wetlands that are remediated by tidal re-flooding cannot be predicted from the well-studied behaviour of normal tidal wetlands. 相似文献
950.
Atmospheric composition is a key control on climate and the habitability of planetary surfaces. Ablation of infalling micrometeorites has been recognised as one way in which atmospheric chemistry can be changed, especially at times in solar system history when the infall rates of exogenous material were high. Despite its potential to influence climate and habitability, extraterrestrial sulphur dioxide is currently an unquantified contribution to the atmospheres of the terrestrial planets. We have used flash pyrolysis to simulate the atmospheric entry of micrometeorites and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy to identify and quantify the sulphur dioxide produced from the carbonaceous meteorites Orgueil (CI1), ALH 88045 (CM1), Cold Bokkeveld (CM2), Murchison (CM2) and Mokoia (CV3). We have used this approach to understand the introduction of sulphur dioxide to the atmospheres of Earth and Mars from infalling micrometeorites. Sulphates, present in carbonaceous chondrites at a few wt.%, are resistant to thermal decomposition, limiting the yields of sulphur dioxide from unmelted micrometeorites. Infalling micrometeorites are a minor source of present-day sulphur dioxide on Earth and Mars, calculated to be up to around 2400 tonnes and about 350 tonnes, respectively. During the Late Heavy Bombardment (LHB), the much greater infall rates of micrometeoritic dust are calculated to be associated with average production rates of sulphur dioxide of around 20 Mt yr−1 for the early Earth and 0.5 Mt yr−1 for early Mars, for a LHB of 100 Myr. These rates of delivery of sulphur dioxide at high altitudes would have reduced the solar energy reaching the surfaces of these planets, via scattering of sunlight by stratospheric sulphate aerosols, and may have had detrimental effects on developing biospheres by promoting cooler climates and reducing the probability of liquid water on planetary surfaces. 相似文献