Use of LIDAR in landslide investigations: a review

This paper presents a short history of the appraisal of laser scanner technologies in geosciences used for imaging relief by high-resolution digital elevation models (HRDEMs) or 3D models. A general overview of light detection and ranging (LIDAR) techniques applied to landslides is given, followed by a review of different applications of LIDAR for landslide, rockfall and debris-flow. These applications are classified as: (1) Detection and characterization of mass movements; (2) Hazard assessment and susceptibility mapping; (3) Modelling; (4) Monitoring. This review emphasizes how LIDAR-derived HRDEMs can be used to investigate any type of landslides. It is clear that such HRDEMs are not yet a common tool for landslides investigations, but this technique has opened new domains of applications that still have to be developed.     

Determination of Halogens (F, Cl, Br, I), Sulfur and Water in Seventeen Geological Reference Materials

Fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine and sulfur were determined in seventeen geological reference materials after extraction by pyrohydrolysis. Fluorine, Cl and S (as sulfate ions) were determined in the extraction solution by ion chromatography with detection limits of around 0.2 mg l⁻¹. Bromine and I were measured by ICP-MS with detection limits of 1 μg l⁻¹ for Br and 0.1 μg l⁻¹ for I. For rock samples, using normal extraction conditions (500 mg of sample and 100 ml of final solution) detection limits were 40 mg kg⁻¹ for F and Cl, 15 mg kg⁻¹ for S, 0.2 mg kg⁻¹ for Br and 0.02 mg kg⁻¹ for I. These detection limits may be improved by increasing the amount of sample and hence the concentration of the final solution. Water was also determined using an extraction technique based on H₂O degassing, reduction on zinc at 1000 °C and H₂ manometry. Our results for fluorine, chlorine, sulfur and water are in good agreement with literature data. Very few reference materials have recommended values for bromine and especially for iodine. Among the analysed samples, three are new reference materials: BHVO-2, BCR-2 and AGV-2.     

A Note on Extension Variances in IR2

Matheron (1971) proposed an approximation of the extension variance in IR. We propose in this note an extension of this formula in IR ² , based on a MacLaurin formula. Its application is shown in an example, the estimation of the maximum depressional storage of a soil surface.     

Proximal and distal styles of pegmatite-related metasomatic emerald mineralization at Ianapera,southern Madagascar

The Ianapera emerald deposit is located in the Neoproterozoic Vohibory Block of southern Madagascar. The local geology consists of intercalated migmatitic gneissic units and calcareous metasedimentary rocks, containing boudinaged metamorphosed mafic/ultramafic lenses, all intruded by pegmatite veins. These units occur near the hinge of the tightly folded Ianapera antiform, within a few kilometers of the Ampanihy shear zone. Emerald mineralization is hosted by metasomatic phlogopite veins, and bodies developed within the mafic/ultramafic rocks. Based on field and textural relationships, we distinguish proximal and distal styles of mineralization. Proximal mineralization occurs at the contact of pegmatite veins with mafic/ultramafic units; in the distal style, pegmatites are not observed. Three types of emeralds could be distinguished, mainly on the basis of color and mineral zoning. Some of these emeralds have the most Al-depleted and Cr-rich composition ever recorded. Another characteristic feature to the Ianapera deposit and, to our knowledge, yet unreported, is the association of some emeralds with scapolite in metasomatised mafic rocks. Mineral inclusions are common in most emeralds and include phlogopite, carbonates, barite, K-feldspar, quartz, pyrite, zircon, monazite, bastnaesite, phenakite, plus Fe and Cr oxides. However, feldspar and rare earth element-bearing minerals occur predominantly in proximal emeralds, which also have a more incompatible trace-element signature than distal emeralds. We propose a model related to syn- to post-tectonic magmatic-hydrothermal activity. Pegmatitic bodies intruded units of the Ianapera antiform probably during tectonic relaxation. Exsolution of fluids rich in halogens and incompatible elements from the cooling pegmatites caused hydrothermal metasomatism of Cr-bearing mafic/ultramafic rocks in direct contact with the pegmatites. Local fracturing favored fluid infiltration, permitting the formation of distal mineralization. Emerald composition was controlled by the chemistry of the host rock. The presence of carbonate mineral inclusions in the emeralds and the high F-activity indicated by elevated F-contents in newly formed minerals suggest transport of Be as a fluoride-carbonate complex. It seems likely that beryl formation was triggered by precipitation of F-rich phlogopite, which removed the complexing ligand from the fluid.     

Heat capacity, entropy, and magnetic properties of jarosite-group compounds

Jarosite phases are common minerals in acidic, sulfate-rich environments. Here, we report heat capacities (C _p) and standard entropies (S°) for a number of jarosite samples. Most samples are close to the nominal composition AFe₃(SO₄)₂(OH)₆, where A = K, Na, Rb, and NH₄. One of the samples has a significant number of defects on the Fe sites and is called the defect jarosite; others are referred to as A-jarosite. The samples, their compositions, and the entropies at T = 298.15 K are:

Middle Carboniferous crustal melting in the Variscan Belt: New insights from U–Th–Pbtot. monazite and U–Pb zircon ages of the Montagne Noire Axial Zone (southern French Massif Central)

In France, the Devonian–Carboniferous Variscan orogeny developed at the expense of continental crust belonging to the northern margin of Gondwana. A Visean–Serpukhovian crustal melting has been recently documented in several massifs. However, in the Montagne Noire of the Variscan French Massif Central, which is the largest area involved in this partial melting episode, the age of migmatization was not clearly settled. Eleven U–Th–Pb_tot. ages on monazite and three U–Pb ages on associated zircon are reported from migmatites (La Salvetat, Ourtigas), anatectic granitoids (Laouzas, Montalet) and post-migmatitic granites (Anglès, Vialais, Soulié) from the Montagne Noire Axial Zone are presented here for the first time. Migmatization and emplacement of anatectic granitoids took place around 333–326 Ma (Visean) and late granitoids emplaced around 325–318 Ma (Serpukhovian). Inherited zircons and monazite date the orthogneiss source rock of the Late Visean melts between 560 Ma and 480 Ma. In migmatites and anatectic granites, inherited crystals dominate the zircon populations. The migmatitization is the middle crust expression of a pervasive Visean crustal melting event also represented by the “Tufs anthracifères” volcanism in the northern Massif Central. This crustal melting is widespread in the French Variscan belt, though it is restricted to the upper plate of the collision belt. A mantle input appears as a likely mechanism to release the heat necessary to trigger the melting of the Variscan middle crust at a continental scale.     

Microtectonic evidence for eastward ductile shear in the Jurassic orogen of SW Japan

Two Jurassic deformation phases are responsible for the thrust and nappe structures in the infrastructure of the outer belt of the Mesozoic chain of SW Japan. The first phase was synmetamorphic, and took place under HP/LT conditions. Microtectonic analysis shows that the penetrative deformation corresponded to a ductile shear directed from W to E, parallel to the stretching and mineral lineation. At the regional scale the first phase corresponded to the obduction of the Greenschist nappes upon the Kurosegawa continent. During the second phase the Greenschist nappes were sliced, leading to an apparent reverse metamorphic zoning. The first phase structures were then locally reworked by folds giving rise to an apparent westwards sense of shear.     

Paléoenvironnements et caractérisation des roches mères pétrolières des séries pré-salifères du bassin intérieur du Gabon

The Interior Basin of Gabon, created during the break-up between South America and Africa, displays thick Neoproterozoic to Aptian p.p. fluvio-lacustrine deposits overlain by Aptian to Albian marine facies. Rock–Eval analyses from outcrop and drillhole samples show high content in organic matter (up to 25%) related to types I and II. These intervals are encountered within Permian, Neocomian–Barremian as well as Aptian siliciclastic succession. They constitute fairly good to excellent potential petroleum source rocks, which are most probably at the origin of oil indices recognized both in drillholes and in surface.