Stratigraphy of Upper Cretaceous–Palaeogene sequences in the southern and eastern Menderes Massif (western Turkey)

The stratigraphy of the uppermost levels of the Menderes Massif is controversial and within its details lie vital constraints to the tectonic evolution of south-western Turkey. Our primary study was carried out in four reference areas along the southern and eastern Menderes Massif. These areas lie in the upper part of the Menderes metamorphic cover and have a clear stratigraphic relationship and contain datable fossils. The first one, in the Akbük-Milas area, is located south-east of Bafa Lake where the Milas, then KLzLla<aç and KazLklL formations are well exposed. There, the Milas formation grades upwards into the KLzLla<aç formation. The contact between the KLzLla<aç and the overlying KazLklL formation is not clearly seen but is interpreted as an unconformity. The Milas and KLzLla<aç formations are also found north of Mu<la, in the region of Yata<an and KavaklLdere. In these areas, the Milas formation consists of schists and conformably overlying platform-type, emery and rudist-bearing marbles. Rudists form the main palaeontological data from which a Santonian-Campanian age is indicated. The KLzLla<aç formation is characterized by reddish-greyish pelagic marbles with marly-pelitic interlayers and coarsening up debris flow deposits. Pelagic marbles within the formation contain planktonic foraminifera and nanoplankton of late Campanian to late Maastrichtian age. The KazLklL formation is of flysch type and includes carbonate blocks. Planktonic foraminifera of Middle Palaeocene age are present in carbonate lenses within the formation. In the Serinhisar-Tavas area, Mesozoic platform-type marbles (YLlanlL formation) belonging to the cover series of the Menderes Massif exhibit an imbricated internal structure. Two rudist levels can be distinguished in the uppermost part of the formation: the first indicates a middle-late Cenomanian age and the upper one is Santonian to Campanian in age. These marbles are unconformably covered by the Palaeocene-Early Eocene Zeybekölentepe formation with polygenetic breccias. In the Çal-Denizli area, the Menderes massif succession consists of cherty marbles and clastic rocks with metavolcanic lenses. The Lower-Middle Eocene zalvan formation lies unconformably on this sequence and is interpreted as equivalent to the marble horizons at Serinhisar but with pelagic facies. The zalvan formation consists of shale, mafic volcanic rock, lenses of limestone and blocks of recrystallized limestone. The zalvan formation is dated here for the first time by Early-Middle Eocene foraminifera and nanoplankton from the matrix of the formation. An angular unconformity exists between the Upper Cretaceous and Lower Tertiary sequences, suggesting that a phase of deformation affected the southern and eastern part of the Menderes Massif at this time. This deformation may be caused by initial obduction of the Lycian ophiolite onto the passive margin to the north of the Menderes carbonate platform during the latest Cretaceous. Drowning of the platform led to termination of carbonate deposition and deposition of deep water flysch-like clastic sediments.     

The variances of tidal harmonics

Summary The variances, or squared standard errors, of estimates of tidal harmonic constants from analyses of a month or a year of tide-gauge data are analysed in terms of spectral properties of their noise continuum, modelled as exponential cuspsE ₁ superimposed on a smoothly monotonic non-tidal spectrumE ₀. Taking 5 representative stations, each with 19 years of data,E ₀ is evaluated from the inter-species noise levels, andE ₁ from the ratio of the variances from monthly and yearly analyses. It is shown that the cusps surrounding the diurnal tides are dominated byE ₀, whereas the more important semi-diurnal and higher species cusps are fitted by an exponential form forE ₁ with bandwidth of a few cycles per year. The variance ratios (monthly: yearly analyses) for diurnal harmonics are somewhat greater than the value expected for white noise, partly because of residual tidal lines in the monthly analyses which cannot be related to the major constituents. The corresponding ratios for semi-diurnal and higher species harmonics are less than the white noise value, on account of the cusps. The standard errors of yearly estimates of the larger tidal constituents may be predicted as proportional to their mean amplitude, as a very rough guide, in the approximate ratio of 11 mm/m.Zusammenfassung Die Varianzen — oder Quadrate der Standardabweichungen — der Abschätzungen von harmonischen Gezeitenkonstanten aus Analysen monatlicher bzw. jährlicher Pegelbeobachtungsreihen werden nach den spektralen Eigenschaften ihres Rauschens analysiert. Dieses wird durch exponentielle SpitzenE ₁, die einem glatten monotonen NichtgezeitenspektrumE ₀ überlagert sind, dargestellt. Anhand 19 jähriger Beobachtungsreihen von 5 repräsentativen Stationen wirdE ₀ aus dem Hintergrundrauschen ermittelt undE ₁ aus dem Verhältnis der Varianzen aus monatlichen und jährlichen Analysen. Es wird gezeigt, daß die Spitzen im Bereich der eintägigen Tiden vonE ₀ beherrscht werden, die wichtigeren Spitzen der halbtägigen Tiden und der Tiden höherer Ordnung werden dagegen durch einen exponentiellen Ausdruck fürE ₁ mit einer Bandbreite von einigen Perioden pro Jahr angenähert. Die Verhältnisse der Varianzen (aus monatlichen zu jährlichen Analysen) für eintägige Harmonische sind etwas größer als der Wert, den man für weißes Rauschen erwarten würde, zum Teil deshalb, weil bei monatlichen Analysen nicht alle Tiden den Hauptkomponenten zugeordnet werden können. Die entsprechenden Verhältnisse für halbtägige und höhere Harmonische sind wegen der Spitzen kleiner als der Wert für weißes Rauschen. Die Standardabweichungen der jährlichen Abschätzungen größerer Gezeitenkomponenten können grob als proportional zu ihrer mittleren Amplitude geschätzt werden mit einem Verhältnis von etwa 11 mm/m.

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Varianzen harmonischer Gezeitenkonstanten

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Les variances des constantes harmoniques de marée

Résumé Les variances, ou carrés des écarts types, des estimations de constantes harmoniques de marée provenant d'analyses portant sur un mois ou une année de données marégraphiques sont analysées en terme de propriétés spectrales de leur continuum de bruit, modélisé comme des pics exponentielsE ₁ superposés à un spectre ne provenant pas de la marée sensiblement monotoneE ₀. Si l'on prend 5 stations représentatives, chacune comportant 19 années d'observations,E ₀ est évalué par les niveaux de bruit inter-espèces, etE ₁ par le rapport des variances provenant des analyses mensuelles et annuelles. On montre que les pics entourant les marées de type diurne sont dominés parE ₀, alors que les pics plus importants de type semidiurne et d'espèces supérieures sont bien approximés par une forme exponentielle pourE ₁ avec une largeur de bande de quelques cycles par an. Les rapports de variance (analyses mensuelles/annuelles) des harmoniques diurnes sont un peu plus grands que la valeur attendue pour le bruit blanc, partiellement à cause des composantes de marée résiduelles dans les analyses mensuelles qui ne peuvent pas être rattachées aux composantes majeures. En raison des pics, les rapports correspondants pour les harmoniques des espèces supérieures et semi-diurnes sont inférieures à la valeur du bruit blanc. Les écarts types des valeurs estimées annuelles des composantes principales de marée peuvent être définis grossièrement comme proportionnels à leur amplitude moyenne, en admettant un rapport de proportionnalité approximatif de 11 mm/m.

     

Analysis of geological structure and anthropological factors affecting arsenic distribution in the Lahore aquifer,Pakistan

This study investigated the potential factors affecting arsenic concentration in the groundwater system of Lahore, Pakistan. The effects of several factors such as population density (PD), pumping rate (PR), impermeable land use (LU), surface elevation (SE), and water-table elevation (WL) on arsenic concentration were studied in 101 union councils of Lahore. Forty single and multi-factor models were established using geographic information system (GIS) techniques to develop an arsenic contamination map and to investigate the most effective combinations among factors. Additionally, statistical tests were used to evaluate arsenic concentration between classes of the same single factor. The arsenic concentration in the Lahore aquifer varied from 0.001 to 0.143 mg L^?1. The highest arsenic concentrations were detected in the Walled City and the town of Shahdara. Among the 40 raster models, groundwater arsenic concentration showed the best matching frequency with single-factor models for PD (50.70 %) and SE (47 %). Thus, PD and SE were used to develop an arsenic distribution raster map, and they were also used to study the effect of aquifer depth on arsenic concentration. PD was found to have hidden latent variables such as PR and LU. The shallow aquifer depth was negatively correlated with arsenic concentration (r?=??0.23) and positively with PR (r?=?0.15). Therefore, when there was high PR in wells with smaller aquifer depth, the arsenic concentration was high. The existing water treatment and alternative water resources are good options, which should be developed to deal with Lahore wells contaminated with arsenic at high concentrations.     

Rockfall susceptibility zoning based on back analysis of rockfall deposit inventory in Gunung Kelir,Java

A rockfall susceptibility based on trajectory-energy/velocity approach needs release area or rockfall source. However, identification of rockfall source is not always possible for some areas in Indonesia. This paper presents a rockfall susceptibility zoning based on back analysis technique of rockfall deposit inventory in Gunung Kelir, Java. There were several steps in the rockfall susceptibility zoning: (1) rockfall deposit inventory, (2) rockfall simulation based on back analysis of rockfall deposit inventory, (3) sensitivity analysis, and (4) rockfall susceptibility zoning. The result suggests that the travel distance is affected by the spatial distribution of rockfall source, lithology or surface material, and topography (angle of slope and angle of aspect). Final trajectories were employed to generate landslide susceptibility map which may allow a policy maker to have an advanced consideration to achieve specified risk measures and evaluation of their cost efficiency to optimize budget and design. Application of rockfall susceptibility zoning based on back analysis of rockfall deposits is efficient where rockfall source information is unavailable.     

Geo-temporal Twitter demographics

This paper seeks and uses highly disaggregate social media sources to characterize Greater London in terms of flows of people with modelled individual characteristics, as well as conventional measures of land use morphology and night-time residence. We conduct three analyses. First, we use the Shannon Entropy measure to characterize the geography of information creation across the city. Second, we create a geo-temporal demographic classification of Twitter users in London. Third, we begin to use Twitter data to characterize the links between different locations across the city. We see all three elements as data rich, highly disaggregate geo-temporal analysis of urban form and function, albeit one that pertains to no clearly defined population. Our conclusions reflect upon this severe shortcoming in analysis using social media data, and its implications for progressing our understanding of socio-spatial distributions within cities.     

Emission quantification of refrigerant CFCs,HCFCs and HFCs in megacity Lahore (Pakistan) and contributed ODPs and GWPs

An integrated assessment of emissions of some important refrigerant ozone depleting substances (ODSs) (CFC-11, CFC-12, HCFC-141b and HFC-134a) and their contributed ozone depletion potentials (ODPs) and global warming potentials (GWPs) have been made in the megacity Lahore (Pakistan) for the period from 2005 to 2013. During the production of 6.488 million refrigerator units, the cumulative estimated emissions of CFC-11, CFC-12, HCFC-141b and HFC-134a were 129.7, 6.8, 1257 and 104 mega grams (1 Mg = 10⁶ grams). The estimated GWP (CO₂-eq) and ODP (CFC 11-eq) associated with production phase emissions of these four gases were 616.07, 73.52, 910.96, and 87.36 kilotonnes, and 129.7, 6.8, 139.4, and 0 tonnes, respectively. ODP of HFC-134a is considered to be zero. In addition, the repair and maintenance of 81.2 thousand units resulted in 10.8 Mg emissions of CFC-12 with 10.8 tonnes ODP(CFC 11-eq) and 117,802 tonnes GWP (CO₂-eq) that were higher than the HFC-134a emissions recorded at 4.3 Mg causing 4563 tonnes GWP(CO₂-eq). A decrease in ODP (CFC 11-eq) and GWP (CO₂-eq) at the rate of ?8.3% and ?8.2% per year is observed to be contributed by all the selected ODSs during the study period.