Geochemistry and evolution of Iherzolite-bearing phonolitic lavas from Nigeria,Australia, East Germany and New Zealand

The major and trace element chemistry of phonolites containing spinel Iherzolite xenoliths from Bokkos (Nigeria), Phonolite Hill (northeastern Australia) and Heldburg (East Germany) is consistent with an origin by fractional crystallization of basanitic magmas at upper mantle pressures (10–15 kbar). At Bokkos, spatially associated lavas ranging from hawaiitic nepheline mugearite to nepheline benmoreite can be modeled very well by fractional crystallization of kaersutitic amphibole + olivine + Fe-Ti-spinel + apatite, a crystal extract consistent with experimentally-determined near-liquidus phase relationships for mugearitic liquids. Further fractional crystallization of aluminous clinopyroxene + mica + apatite will yield the phonolites. A similar model relating the unusual Iherzolite-bearing mafic nepheline benmoreite from Pigroot (New Zealand) to basanitic lavas of the East Otago province is not supported by major and trace element data. The Pigroot lava is possibly the product of melting of a mantle source region previously enriched in Sr and light rare earth elements, with subsequent minor fractional crystallization of olivine + kaersutite. Dynamic flow crystallization processes operating within conduit systems from mantle pressures are capable of yielding large volumes of evolved phonolitic liquids from primary basanitic liquids, if magma flow rates are appropriate. This mechanism may provide an explanation for the volumetric bias towards salic differentiates in some alkalic provinces.     

Relationship between fracture spacing and bed thickness

Empirical relationships between fracture spacing and bed thickness are established for a number of rock types. The influence of the thickness of adjacent incompetent layers and also the lithology of the competent beds on fracture spacing are indicated; and possible mechanisms leading to the development of these relationships are briefly discussed.     

Radiocarbon dating of the rate of movement of two solifluction lobes in the Ruby Range, Yukon Territory

The rates of solifluction of two lobes in the Ruby Range have been determined by ¹⁴C dates of samples taken from buried organic layers in the lobes. Twenty-one dates are available from one lobe, and seven from another. When plotted against distance back from control points at the lobe fronts the dates show considerable scatter. In part the scatter is thought to be due to a potential age range of 340 ± 100 yr in the organic layers. Linear and polynomial regressions were calculated for the time/distance relationships shown by the dates. The rates of lobe advance established by these means for the lobe with seven dates are not thought to be reliable. Reasonably good estimates of movement rate were determined for the second lobe by both the linear and polynomial methods. However, the rates established by the two methods are quite similar. Because of this and other uncertainties it is difficult to draw inferences of climatic change from the changes in movement rate shown by the polynomial solution.     

Petrology and geochemistry of the Banks Peninsula volcanoes,South Island,New Zealand

Within the volcanic sequence of the twin volcanoes of Lyttelton and Akaroa, Banks Peninsula, New Zealand a number of different magma series have been distinguished.An early series of hawaiites (McQueens Valley Formation) was erupted about 32 m.y. ago and is of transitional or mildly tholeiitic chemistry. Stratigraphically above the McQueens Valley Formation, but unconformably overlain by the main volcanic dome sequence, is a unit of rhyolite (Gebbies Pass Rhyolites) which is not directly related to the earlier or later basaltic volcanism. The rhyolite was probably formed during intracrustal melting which was related to the rise of basaltic magma into the crust.Between 12 and 9.7 m.y. a large volcanic dome, composed mainly of hawaiite, was built at Lyttelton. Dykes, which intrude the Lyttelton volcanic sequence, range in composition from basalt to trachyte. Late, mildly alkalic, basaltic flank flows (7.5–5.8 m.y.) occur in several areas and they, and the differentiated rocks of the dyke swarm can be related by a crystal fractionation model which has been quantitatively tested.Following construction of the Lyttelton dome a second larger dome was built at Akaroa between 9 and 7.5 m.y. The rocks of the Akaroa Volcano are principally hawaiites but rocks ranging in composition through to trachyte also occur. The differentiated rocks of the Akaroa volcano have derived from the basaltic rocks by a crystal fractionation controlled process, operating during ascent through the crust.None of the Banks Peninsula basalts appear to have derived from primitive (pyrolitic) mantle material, but progressive changes in the chemistry of the basalts with time implies that the mantle source regions were evolving geochemically as partial melting proceeded. Later lavas tend to be more alkalic and to have lower MgO/FeO ratios than earlier lavas. The volcanic rocks of the Banks Peninsula volcanoes were derived by fractional removal of olivine, plagioclase, clinopyroxene, magnetite and apatite from ascending basaltic magma batches. Variations between the suites reflect differences between the parental magma batches.     

Effects of annealing on deformation textures in galena

Experimental annealing of galena samples with known deformation histories shows that this mineral has the necessary properties to be a valuable source of information about low-grade deformational environments. Annealed galena displays recovery and/or recrystallization features dependent upon the type of texture inherited from the tectonic event, which in turn is closely linked to deformation temperatures.In samples deformed at temperatures less than 200 ° C in the laboratory, later annealing produced subgrains, mosaics of new grains, or rapid grain boundary migration as the annealing temperatures were varied from 200 ° C to 700 ° C. Kink bands maintained characteristic straight simple boundaries inherited from the deformation event. Samples deformed above 300 ° C developed syntectonically recrystallized textures. Kink bands had been converted to elongate grains with complex sutured grain boundaries during deformation, and mosaics of new grains were found in highly deformed regions. These textures were extremely stable through later annealing. Despite our changing annealing temperatures through 500 ° C, we did not produce similar textures from both low and high temperature deformation runs.Examination of polished and etched galena from low-grade tectonic settings may well be worth the effort since galena textures appear to display features indicative of deformational evironments, even after being subjected to considerable post-tectonic thermal perturbations.     

Exsolution microstructures in titanomagnetites and their magnetic significance

A survey, carried out using transmission electron microscopy, of exsolution-derived microstructures developed in titanomagnetites is presented. Microstructures, probably produced by spinodal decomposition, consist of a three-dimensional lamellar framework of ulvospinel, separating magnetite-enriched blocks. In coarser textures the magnetite-enriched regions have a plate morphology, and the ulvospinel-enriched lamellae develop secondary exsolution textures. The implications of exsolution for the magnetic properties of titanomagnetites are discussed. The coarsening of exsolution textures will cause the blocking temperature of the magnetite-enriched regions to increase with time. The development of magnetite-enriched plates may alter the magnetic properties of the titanomagnetite, as may the stress associated with some of the small scale, coherent microstructures.     

Fractional crystallisation and the petrology of Dunedin volcano

Major and trace element data and mineral chemical data indicate that the range in rock types making up the Dunedin volcano has developed by crystal fractionation processes acting upon mantle derived basaltic magmas at various levels in the crust and upper mantle. A diversity among parental materials and the operation of the fractionation process at varying levels in the crust and mantle under varying conditions of pH₂O have resulted in a diverse series of overlapping fractionation trends. ‘End member’ series are: basalt-hawaiite-mugearite-benmoreite; basanite-nepheline hawaiitenepheline mugearite-nepheline benmoreite; moderately potassic variants on these series. The phonolitic rocks of the volcano are low pressure differentiates derived by fractional crystallization, involving feldspar, as end member products in all the series outlined above. Quartz normative trachytes of the volcano appear to be differentiates from a distinct saturated or oversaturated magma series of different strontium isotopic and trace element characteristics from the undersaturated magma series.     

The Late Proterozoic ophiolite of Sol Hamed,NE Sudan

The Sol Hamed complex, a sequence from ultramafics, through gabbros, thin sheeted dykes, to pillow lavas, is an ophiolite. It was obducted, tilted nearly to vertical, eroded and covered unconformably by the Nafirdeib Series. This is a volcaniclastic series, dated at 712 ± 58 Ma, the lower part of which includes conglomerates with ophiolitic clasts, olistostromes, one with large oolitic limestone slabs, felsitic and dacitic tuffs, turbidites and black shales, with andesites above. Some of the structures in the ophiolite are attributed to sub-oceanic deformation. Deformation after the deposition of the Nafirdeib Series produced folds and cleavage trending about NE-SW and, more locally, a cleavage trending NW in a shear zone where the ophiolite was thrust northeastwards over the Nafirdeib Series. The ophiolite and the Nafirdeib Series were intruded by the batholithic granite dated elsewhere at ca. 669 Ma. The ophiolite is thought to occur on a suture with the Nafirdeib Series representing part of an island arc sequence.     

Solubility of crude oil in methane as a function of pressure and temperature

The solubility of a 44° API (0.806 sp. gr.) whole crude oil has been measured in methane with water present at temperatures of 50 to 250°C and pressures of 740 to 14,852 psi, as have the solubilities of two high molecular weight petroleum distillation fractions at temperatures of 50 to 250°C and pressures of 4482 to 25,266 psi. Both increases in pressure and temperature increase the solubility of crude oil and petroleum distillation fractions in methane, the effect of pressure being greater than that of temperature. Unexpectedly high solubility levels (0.5–1.5 grams of oil per liter of methane—at laboratory temperature and pressure) were measured at moderate conditions (50–200°C and 5076–14504 psi). Similar results were found for the petroleum distillation fractions, one of which was the highest molecular weight material of petroleum (material boiling above 266°C at 6 microns pressure). Unexpectedly mild conditions (100°C and 15,200 psi; 200°C and 7513 psi) resulted in cosolubility of crude oil and methane. Under these conditions, samples of the gas-rich phase gave solubility values of 4 to 5 g/l, or greater.Qualitative analyses of the crude-oil solute samples showed that at low pressure and temperature equilibration conditions, the solute condensate would be enriched in C₅–C₁₅ range hydrocarbons and in saturated hydrocarbons in the C₁₅₊ fraction. With increases in temperature and especially pressure, these tendencies were reversed, and the solute condensate became identical to the starting crude oil.The data of this study, compared to that of previous studies, shows that methane, with water present, has a much greater carrying capacity for crude oil than in dry systems. The presence of water also drastically lowers the temperature and pressure conditions required for cosolubility.The data of this and/or previous studies demonstrate that the addition of carbon dioxide, ethane, propane, or butane to methane also has a strong positive effect on crude oil solubility, as does the presence of fine grained rocks.The n-paraffin distributions (as well as the overall composition) of the solute condensates are controlled by the temperature and pressure of solution and exsolution, as well as by the composition of the original starting material. It appears quite possible that primary migration by gaseous solution could ‘strip’ a source rock of crude-oil like components leaving behind a bitumen totally unlike the migrated crude oil. The data of this study demonstrate previous criticisms of primary petroleum migration by gas solution are invalid; that primary migration by gaseous solution cannot occur because methane cannot dissolve sufficient volumes of crude oil or cannot dissolve the highest molecular weight components of petroleum (tars and asphaltenes).